Searching for Answers. Series: NIJ Annual Report to Congress Published: July 1996 185 pages 295,301 bytes Searching for Answers: Criminal Justice Research, Development and Evaluation National Institute of Justice 1995 Annual Report to Congress ------------------------------ Letter of Transmittal To the President, the Attorney General, and the Congress: I have the honor to transmit herewith Searching for Answers, the National Institute of Justice's annual report on research, development, and evaluation for fiscal year 1995, pursuant to the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (as amended) and the 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act. Respectfully submitted, Jeremy Travis Director National Institute of Justice Washington, DC ------------------------------ National Institute of Justice Jeremy Travis Director Report Editor Mary Graham The research, evaluation, and development activities described in this report are undertaken and monitored by staff members of the National Institute of Justice, who provided invaluable assistance in the development of this report. The Institute also acknowledges with thanks the contributions of its grantees to this report. Editorial and production support was provided by Cygnus Corporation. NCJ 162042 ------------------------------ The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. This report was prepared under contract number OJP-94-C-005 awarded to Cygnus Corporation. ------------------------------ Table of Contents Message From the Director Introduction Part 1: Highlights of Fiscal Year 1995 The 1994 Crime Act: A Catalyst for Innovation Advances in Science and Technology The Global Effects of Crime Information Technology and Communications A New Century and a New Philosophy Part 2: Findings From the NIJ Research Portfolio Violence: Understanding Why and Reducing the Risks Juvenile Crime: An Escalating Concern Family Violence: Developing New Strategies for Responding Community Policing: A Focal Point of Innovation Drug-Related Crime: Trends and Responses Adjudication: Experimenting With Specialized Approaches Corrections: New Challenges and Alternatives Science and Technology: Exciting Advances Summary Part 3: Appendixes: NIJ Awards, Publications, and Partnerships Appendix A: NIJ Awards in FY 1995 Appendix B: Recent NIJ Publications Appendix C: NIJ Partnerships ------------------------------ Message from the Director Our success in meeting today's challenges depends on open dialogue, creative thinking, and clear focus on safety and justice while we nurture the seeds of change. The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is the Federal Government's chief sponsor of criminal justice research. Allied to its central mission of research are responsibilities for evaluating criminal justice practice and innovative programs, stimulating the use of advanced technology to solve crime control problems, and spreading the word on new insights and approaches yielded by research and experimentation. During the year covered by this report, the National Institute of Justice initiated broader agendas in all of its mission areas. With the impetus of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, NIJ launched partnerships with creative and committed colleagues in the offices charged with implementing key innovations set forth in the legislation -- community policing, violence against women, correctional boot camps, and drug courts. This synergy of innovation, research, evaluation, and sharing of knowledge promises that the lessons of the major innovations now in progress throughout the country will be assimilated into policy and practice. With the support of Congress, NIJ is now working closely with the U.S. Department of Defense on a multi-year effort to devise dual-use technologies that will benefit both the military and State and local law enforcement. The Institute's technology programs are aimed at helping criminal justice agencies keep pace with the accelerating advances in science and technology, from DNA analysis to less-than-lethal weapons to sophisticated weapons detection systems. Another central initiative of the last year has introduced the National Institute of Justice as a full partner in the global dialogue on the problems of crime and crime prevention and efforts to strengthen the administration of justice. In collaboration with the U.S. Department of State, NIJ convened policymakers, practitioners, and researchers from around the world to explore the issues involved in policing in emerging democracies. In 1995, too, NIJ became one of the family of criminological institutes associated with the United Nations. And the Institute was asked by the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch to assist in designing a prototype of an Internet-based system of information exchange among the Branch, the associated institutes, and other government and education organizations worldwide. That system, known as UNOJUST -- the United Nations Online Justice Information Clearinghouse -- was unveiled at the United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders in Cairo, Egypt, in 1995. NIJ recognizes that information must be shared if it is to influence future action. We have completed a rethinking of the Institute's dissemination and publications programs that we believe will enable us to inform those in the field more rapidly and effectively. One of the vehicles that will help us achieve this is increasing use of the information superhighway. Last year, NIJ significantly expanded its use of electronic dissemination with a presence on the World Wide Web. As the Institute moves ahead, its challenge is to assess the remarkable opportunities for creativity and reform within the criminal justice system and choose those in which research can make the greatest contribution. Our success in meeting this challenge depends on our willingness to engage the field and communities in candid dialogue, our openness to different ways of thinking about the criminal justice system, and our ability to keep the ultimate goals of safety and justice foremost in mind while we nurture the seeds of change. Jeremy Travis Director National Institute of Justice ------------------------------ Introduction In this report: Part 1 . . . Highlights of Fiscal Year 1995 Part 2 . . . Findings From the NIJ Research Portfolio Part 3 . . . NIJ Awards, Publications, and Partnerships In 1995, criminal justice research reached a new threshold. Strengthened by a quarter-century of experience, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) -- the Nation's primary Federal sponsor of justice research -- launched an expanded effort to address crime control issues of concern to all Americans. An important impetus for 1995 efforts was the implementation of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-322). The Act both reinforced activities already under way at NIJ and stimulated new research and evaluation initiatives. It also sharpened NIJ's focus on innovation, especially through its emphasis on: o Community policing. o Violence against women, including domestic violence and child abuse. o Alternative sanctions, such as boot camps. o Drug courts, which emphasize treating offenders and holding them accountable for their actions. Last year saw significant advances in other areas as well. First, with the growing recognition that crime is a global issue, NIJ accepted a much larger role in sharing criminal justice information internationally by taking advantage of the latest in information technology. Second, the Institute undertook a broad range of activities, some with the Department of Defense (DOD), to harness new initiatives in the broader science and technology arena for the use of criminal justice agencies. Finally, NIJ continued to foster national discussion on important issues facing the criminal justice community as it enters the 21st century. Funding NIJ awarded more than $55 million during the past fiscal year for a wide array of projects involving research, evaluation, program development, technology development, and dissemination of information. NIJ's total expenditures for fiscal year 1995 and its funding sources includes its base appropriation, which was augmented by funds from agencies and organizations that have chosen to partner with the Institute on studies related to the 1994 Crime Act as well as on other important projects. (The list of NIJ's research and evaluation partners can be found in Appendix C.) The number of proposals received in response to the NIJ Research Plan and to solicitations increased last year from 500 to 1,000. Internal Changes Streamline NIJ Functions As Institute activity increased, so too did the number of staff. Newly hired personnel have helped to plan and monitor a diverse portfolio of grants and contracts and to provide information and services to States and localities. Following an internal assessment of NIJ by its director, several organizational changes were initiated and strategic plans set in motion to strengthen NIJ's operations and enhance its capabilities as a research institution. The Institute's annual Research Plan was significantly streamlined, and 15 solicitations were issued during fiscal year 1995 on special topics. A new intramural research program was developed in which staff investigate significant policy issues. For example, one project examines changes in homicide and violent crime during the past decade in 10 cities as well as crime trend data in the 77 largest cities. Several projects are using Drug Use Forecasting data to analyze trends, patterns, and relationships among drug use and homelessness, rearrest rates, type of drug use, and the role of drugs in crime commission. In preparation during the year was the first-ever listing of the entire portfolio of active research efforts of NIJ grantees and staff; it will be available in 1996. The Institute's internal changes resulted in reorganization into three program offices: Research and Evaluation, Science and Technology, and Development and Dissemination. Office of Research and Evaluation The Office of Research and Evaluation (ORE) is responsible for all of NIJ's criminal justice research and evaluation activities. ORE's work is the central focus of NIJ's mission. ORE identifies priority issues in criminal justice and builds knowledge that informs policymakers, criminal justice practitioners at all levels of government, and members of the public. ORE develops and sponsors a comprehensive research and evaluation program that adds significantly to our understanding of criminal behavior, crime control, and criminal justice. ORE has two divisions: (1) Crime Control and Prevention, and (2) Criminal Justice and Criminal Behavior. The Crime Control and Prevention Division plans and develops research on and evaluation of crime prevention programs, white collar and organized crime policing programs, gangs, firearms, victims of crime, and the Community Oriented Policing program mandated under Title I of the Crime Act of 1994. The Criminal Justice and Criminal Behavior Division sponsors studies about offender decision making, drug consumption, criminal careers, prosecution, sentencing, and corrections and court issues. It is responsible for research relating to Title IV of the Crime Act, Violence Against Women Act, and Title II, which deals with boot camps, prison construction, and drug courts. The division is also responsible for major programs of research on the onset of delinquency, on violent criminal behavior, such as sexual assault and child molestation, as well as NIJ's Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) program. It also coordinates the Institute's Intramural Research Program and the Visiting and Graduate Research Fellowship programs. Office of Science and Technology The Office of Science and Technology (OST) supports programs that provide a firm scientific foundation for developing equipment and techniques that improve law enforcement, corrections, and forensics. Science and technology activities fall into three areas: (1) collection and dissemination of technical information, (2) development of standards and operation of an equipment testing program, and (3) a research and development grants program. OST also supports five regional National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Centers that coordinate technology-related information for their geographical areas. Office of Development and Dissemination NIJ's Office of Development and Dissemination (ODD) improves the criminal justice system by supporting applied research and program demonstrations, offering training and workshops, and disseminating pertinent information to the criminal justice community nationwide. The focus is on direct services to professionals in the criminal justice field. ODD reports on significant issues that affect day-to-day practice, innovative local programs that merit consideration by other jurisdictions, and emerging problems. Among its recent initiatives is a computerized data base of antiviolence programs called PAVNET (Partnerships Against Violence Network). During the year, PAVNET information became available online with search and retrieval capabilities for approximately 1,000 entries. A printed two-volume directory of PAVNET data was published in January 1995. PAVNET Online can be accessed by gophering to pavnet.esuda.gov. PAVNET's World Wide Web address is http://www.pavnet.org. Other publications issued by ODD include the report series Issues and Practices in Criminal Justice, which explores program options and management issues to help criminal justice administrators plan, implement, and improve programs and practices; and Program Focus summaries, which highlight innovative State and local criminal justice programs and approaches. Office of the Director The Office of the Director sets policy and provides overall management and administration. The Director of NIJ, who is appointed by the President, approves all grant awards, cooperative agreements, and contracts; sets policies and priorities for the Institute; supervises the Institute's budget; and provides direction and supervision of staff, administration, and management. The staff in the Office of the Director help facilitate these various functions. About This Report NIJ's goals and accomplishments for 1995 are highlighted in this three-part report: Part 1, Highlights of Fiscal Year 1995, summarizes the Institute's activities on key fronts. Highlights include the 1994 Crime Act research and evaluation initiatives, international endeavors, communications innovations, advances in science and technology, and challenges facing the criminal justice system as it enters the 21st century. Part 2, Findings From the NIJ Research Portfolio, discusses findings from selected NIJ projects relevant to current priorities such as violence, drugs, science and technology, and the operations of the criminal justice system -- law enforcement, the courts, and corrections. Part 2 also presents findings from evaluations of programs supported by the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), which administers the Federal block grant program to help States and localities fight drugs and crime. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 directs NIJ to evaluate selected BJA projects to identify the most promising and suitable for replication and to help programs modify procedures and operations to become more effective. Part 3, Appendixes: Awards, Publications, and Partnerships, contains a list of awards made in fiscal year 1995, recent NIJ publications, and partnerships formed with other agencies. ------------------------------ Part 1 Highlights of Fiscal Year 1995 The 1994 Crime Act: A Catalyst for Innovation NIJ's research agenda reflects new thinking about ways to link community concerns with criminal justice responses. The 1994 Crime Act provided major new opportunities for innovation in criminal justice. Responsible government demands careful evaluation of innovative programs, and NIJ set in motion systematic research and evaluation initiatives to address the dual challenges that Congress wrote into the Crime Act: (1) ensure accountability, and (2) learn from doing. Plans for the research were developed by NIJ's Office of Research and Evaluation in collaboration with the Crime Act offices within the Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Office of Justice Programs (OJP)1 and with the participation of criminal justice practitioners who met with NIJ staff in several sessions during the year. For each of the four areas emphasized by the Crime Act (community policing, violence against women, corrections, and drug courts), NIJ devised a strategy that entailed a national evaluation to explore the impact of Crime Act initiatives and assess specific programmatic interventions. Together with research on other key issues, the strategy is expected to yield findings to guide the future of the Crime Act initiatives. Community Policing Within a year after the Crime Act was signed into law, NIJ, in cooperation with the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, awarded nearly $14 million in research and evaluation grants related to Title I, the Public Safety Partnership and Community Policing Act of 1994. This amount represents the single largest Federal investment in policing research. The 55 projects involving more than 40 jurisdictions were chosen from about 300 proposals submitted in response to the Institute's research solicitation that was issued in May 1995. Projects initiated under major categories included: o National evaluation This effort will assess the impact of Title I funds on law enforcement agencies. Evaluators will survey up to 3,600 police executives, visit 30 to 60 local jurisdictions, and develop case studies on 8 to 16 of the sites. The data developed will help answer several questions: Are the resources getting to local agencies? What activities are being supported? Are they having an impact? o Organization and management Major organizational issues related to the adoption of community policing are being examined, for example, through a national survey of police executives and through case studies of cities that are on the cutting edge of this approach to policing. o Strategies and tactics These awards focus on the techniques various agencies are applying as they implement community policing. The projects are assessing such issues as a coordinated domestic violence response system, family group conferencing, community policing strategies in public housing, joint community policing and social service responses to elder abuse, and the effectiveness of problem- solving techniques. o Police-community interaction Projects include those that will determine how residents in several neighborhoods learn about crime and disorder, how they shape their everyday lives to reduce risk, and how community policing affects citizens' perceptions of fear and disorder. Researchers will also conduct major observational projects on how citizens and police interact in community policing environments as well as study policing on Indian reservations. o Locally initiated partnerships After reviewing nearly 100 proposals, NIJ awarded 26 grants to fund the establishment of collaborations between police departments and police researchers. The aim of the partnerships -- which will be active in some 58 jurisdictions in 39 States -- is to give localities a research capacity that will allow them to capture data on local innovations and assess their effectiveness. The majority of the grants support partnerships between either a single agency or agency consortium with university researchers. Police in Omaha, for example, will work with researchers at the University of Nebraska at Omaha to set research and problem-solving agendas and then tackle the top priorities. In downstate Illinois, 20 or more municipal police agencies serving populations of under 50,000 will work side-by-side with researchers from Southern Illinois University first to determine research priorities and then to conduct the actual research. To measure the effectiveness of these partnerships, NIJ has also funded an independent evaluation of these efforts. Violence Against Women The 1994 Crime Act fosters a multidisciplinary, collaborative approach to reducing violence against women, which includes sexual assault, stranger violence, and violence between intimates. In fiscal year 1995, NIJ undertook a number of activities to respond to the research mandates of the Crime Act and to continue NIJ's program of expanding knowledge and understanding of why these crimes occur and how to prevent them. As with community policing, NIJ issued a solicitation for research, in this case relating to Title IV of the Crime Act -- the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). In partnership with the Violence Against Women Grants Office, NIJ awarded nearly $1 million to 6 projects, which were selected from 61 proposals submitted. One project is a nationwide evaluation of the implementation of programs funded under VAWA; other studies will examine coordinated responses to domestic violence. In one jurisdiction, for example, evaluators will assess a program that combines a policy of mandatory arrest and court-mandated treatment for batterers with a no-drop prosecution strategy. Another project will assess the impact of alternative coordination approaches on victims' safety as well as victim satisfaction with responses. It will draw on an analysis of statewide data in New York and visits to five criminal justice agencies. Researchers will develop a typology of coordination models and will assess the role of leadership, conflict, and resources in the growth of different models. Researchers and prosecutors in Iowa will examine domestic violence prosecution strategies with the aim of identifying which strategies result in a successful conviction on the original charge. During the past year, NIJ also responded to specific mandates of VAWA requiring that a number of studies and reports (described below) be submitted to Congress. Data Collection on Sexual and Domestic Violence The Institute completed a study of the feasibility of creating centralized State data bases on the incidence of sexual and domestic violence. A companion effort carried out under the aegis of the Bureau of Justice Statistics examined collection of such data at the Federal level. NIJ is publishing a report summarizing both studies, which found that the Federal Government and the majority of States currently are collecting some statistics annually on these crimes: 35 States collect data on domestic violence, and 30 gather statistics on sexual violence. The research identified two key problems: First, there is variation among the States in terms of the definitions used and in the types of victims included in reporting requirements, which make it difficult to aggregate and compare data at the national level; and second, there is a need to include not only law enforcement statistics but also data from other parts of the criminal justice and social service systems for a more accurate picture. Domestic Violence, Stalking, and Antistalking Legislation At the close of the fiscal year, NIJ was nearing completion of a report on domestic violence, stalking, and antistalking legislation. The report notes that little hard data exist on the incidence of stalking or on its relationship to domestic violence. State antistalking laws only recently have been enacted, and the extent to which these laws are being used, alone or with other statutes, has not yet been measured. As of 1995, 49 States and the District of Columbia had legislation that addressed the problem of stalking. In the 19 States where the laws have been challenged on constitutional grounds, in all but three instances the statutes have been upheld. Violence Against Women Research Agenda NIJ and the National Academy of Sciences developed a long-range research agenda to accumulate knowledge across a broad range of areas -- prevention, education, and legal strategies. Confidentiality of Information Also in progress last year was a study of the means by which abusive partners obtain the addresses of domestic violence victims. The report identifies numerous information sources that batterers can access to locate victims. Battered Women's Syndrome In conjunction with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIJ responded to a congressional directive for a study of battered women's syndrome from a variety of perspectives. This report, too, will be available in 1996. Although the term "battered women's syndrome" has been used widely for some time, the report underscores the need for a more sophisticated way of understanding and discussing this complex issue. To reflect current empirical knowledge, the report's authors recommend "battering and its effects" as more accurate terminology. The study, which also involved the State Justice Institute and the National Association of Women Judges, found that expert testimony on battering and its effects has now been admitted in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. An analysis of the appeals of battered women defendants found that 63 percent of the convictions were upheld, even though expert testimony on battering and its effects on women was admitted in 70 percent of those cases. Researchers considered this strong evidence that, contrary to the contention of some critics, admitting expert testimony on battering and its effects was not tantamount to an acquittal. Judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys interviewed by the researchers said the impact of such evidence in criminal trials has increased the court's recognition of the broader problem of domestic violence. Joint Solicitation Finally, NIJ and several agencies within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, working through the Interagency Violence Research Working Group, have collaborated on the development of a joint solicitation to support basic research on violence against women and family violence. Released in early 1996, this first-ever interagency research announcement will award up to $4.5 million over 3 years to conduct research on the causes, course, treatment, management, and prevention of violence against women and violence within the family, as well as on the health and legal consequences of violent acts on victims. Gathering sufficient resources for such an approach required a multiagency investment. Correctional Boot Camps The Crime Act provides formula and competitive grant awards for State correctional agencies to build and operate correctional facilities, including boot camps, to ensure that additional space is available to incarcerate other, violent offenders. To evaluate this initiative and the projects conducted under it, NIJ and the OJP Corrections Office allotted $1.2 million to be awarded in fiscal years 1995 and 1996. Following the issuance of the first solicitation in fiscal year 1995, a total of $600,000 was awarded for two projects that were selected from a field of more than 25 proposals. One study will implement a multisite strategy to assess the effects of 10 boot camp programs, 6 for adults and 4 for juveniles. The study will be especially sensitive to outcomes of aftercare strategies. The other award will study 27 juvenile boot camps with an emphasis on learning more about the confinement itself and specific aspects of the boot camp environment. The remaining funds will be awarded to successful applicants under the solicitation issued in 1996. Drug Courts The Crime Act emphasized the potential of creating special courts that combine sanctions and drug treatment for drug-abusing offenders. For many first-time drug offenders, being arrested and charged with a crime can become the crisis that prompts them to seek help. In most drug courts, the judge exerts considerable influence to make sure the offender's performance stays on track. The defense and prosecution tend to be less adversarial than in a traditional court setting because the two sides share one of the primary goals of the drug court: to reduce drug abuse and thereby decrease criminal behavior. An NIJ evaluation of the Dade County Drug Court in Florida, which has been the leader in this approach, showed promising results. NIJ is actively engaged in developing a solicitation to be issued in 1996 to assess the impact of drug courts funded under the Act. Advances in Science and Technology Since its inception, NIJ has worked to apply technological discoveries to criminal justice. Soft body armor, which is now standard issue among law enforcement agencies, stemmed from an early NIJ initiative. Continuing this commitment to harness scientific advances for the benefit of criminal justice operations, NIJ significantly expanded its science and technology efforts during fiscal year 1995, allocating a total of $13 million for these activities. NIJ's technology initiatives were augmented last year by a congressional appropriation of $37.5 million to the U.S. Department of Defense for a joint DOD/DOJ program to develop dual-use technologies to support defense and law enforcement needs. The funds are supporting projects developed by the program's steering group under a memorandum of understanding signed in April 1994 by the Justice and Defense Departments. Researchers will focus on developing improved covert body armor capable of stopping "cop-killer" bullets, sniper detection devices, information technologies, remote diagnosis and medical consultation systems, geolocation and tagging systems, and less-than-lethal technologies. NIJ and DOD also began an initiative to develop advanced technologies for detecting concealed weapons in public areas. In addition, NIJ is evaluating technologies that might lead to a reliable, safe mechanism to prevent un-authorized users from firing a law enforcement officer's firearm. Technologies to locate gunfire in urban areas and to stop fleeing vehicles and felons are all aimed at equipping law enforcement officers with a means of preventing rather than reacting to crime. With funds transferred from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, NIJ will award up to $4 million to develop technologies that will support community policing. In March 1995, NIJ conducted a major demonstration of less-than-lethal technologies that are under development, providing the opportunity for law enforcement professionals and industry researchers to share information. NIJ continued to develop and publish standards for a wide variety of law enforcement equipment and to conduct tests of selected products. Last year saw a significant expansion of technology research and development into the field of corrections. A new committee of some 80 corrections practitioners is identifying pressing correctional needs and recommending priorities for technology research and development. Four regional National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Centers and a Border Research and Technology Center opened their doors last year, providing a much needed extension to the Center in the Washington, D.C., area.2 Offering toll-free telephone access, these regional centers function as the hub for information about technology equipment, standards, testing, and data base development. They are the regional interfaces for law enforcement and corrections agencies and the Justice Technology Information Network (JUSTNET) site on the World Wide Web. The Network provides online access to data, products, publications, and interactive topics of interest to law enforcement and corrections. In 1995, NIJ established the Office of Law Enforcement Technology Commercialization, colocated with the National Technology Transfer Center in Wheeling, West Virginia, to help industry and government laboratories bring technology to the law enforcement marketplace in a timely and affordable manner. The 1994 Crime Act provides funding for NIJ to continue its work in identifying the capabilities of DNA analysis, including determining the feasibility of establishing a blind external proficiency testing program for DNA analyses that would be available to public and private laboratories performing these tests. DNA typing will soon become so prevalent that the number of samples will overwhelm forensic laboratories unless improved techniques are developed. These and other technology initiatives are described in more detail in Part 2 of this report. ------------------------------ Getting Online With NIJ Information about the National Institute of Justice, the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), and other Office of Justice Programs agencies can be found on the Justice Information Center Web site. o NIJ's and NCJRS's URL is: http://www.ncjrs.org o NCJRS has two e-mail addresses, depending on the type of service requested: -- To receive an automatic description of NCJRS services: look@ncjrs.org -- To send inquiries and request specific information: askncjrs@ncjrs.org The NCJRS Users' Guide describes all of NCJRS's electronic services. The Guide can be ordered by calling NCJRS at 1-800-851-3420 (order number NCJ 155063). ------------------------------ The Global Effects of Crime Crime trends worldwide show a growing similarity. Several types of crime -- for example, offenses committed by juveniles and violent acts committed against women -- are becoming important issues in other countries besides the United States. In the spring of 1995, NIJ's long-standing relationship with the United Nations (UN) was formalized at the Ninth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders in Cairo, Egypt. At the Congress, NIJ joined other criminological research institutes around the world as a member of the United Nations Programme Network. The institutes, currently 12 in all, are linked under the leadership of the UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division, the central repository within the UN for technical expertise in crime prevention, criminal justice, and criminal reform. The branch facilitates information sharing and cooperation on projects that upgrade law enforcement and criminal justice systems. Crime in other countries can quickly become a problem in the United States. For example, the advent of organized crime in Brooklyn operated by Russian emigres brings home the need to learn more about crime elsewhere in the world. Because of the effect transnational crime has on domestic crime, local law enforcement agencies are becoming more aware of the need to deal with global differences. NIJ research in progress will identify innovative approaches to coping with transnational crime, especially crime committed by or against illegal aliens in this country.3 In fiscal year 1995, NIJ took other steps to strengthen connections with the international community: o In conjunction with the Bureau of Justice Statistics and State University of New York at Albany, NIJ participated in the development of the Web site for the United Nations Criminal Justice Information Network, an automated system consisting of a document data base in "gopher" and HTML format and a listserv (or electronic discussion forum). NIJ staff and Fellows are now working with other UN Programme Network Institutes to develop an Internet-based system called UNOJUST (United Nations Online Justice Clearinghouse). o NIJ's National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) upgraded its ability to exchange information internationally. Currently, 103 members in 52 countries are represented in NCJRS's International Document Exchange. o An international section was added to the Justice Information Center, the Office of Justice Programs' site on the World Wide Web. o In fiscal year 1995, NIJ began working with several agencies and organizations with international missions: -- With the International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Section of the U.S. Department of State, NIJ is exploring ways to assist other countries and nongovernmental organizations in establishing connections to the Internet and building the UN's digital library capacity. -- With the Eurasia Foundation, NIJ created an electronic library, called the International Rule of Law Clearinghouse Online, which is designed to help newly independent nations learn how to build their institutions on a foundation of law. -- With the Police Scientific Development Branch in the United Kingdom, NIJ's Office of Science and Technology is exchanging information about the newest developments in police science. -- With representatives from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Israel National Police Headquarters, the NIJ-funded Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Advisory Council makes recommendations to the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center. Information Technology and Communications NIJ's efforts to promote faster and easier access to the electronic exchange of criminal justice information made significant progress last year. The Institute initiated a major push toward using advanced information technologies, especially the Internet, to transmit information and to enable NIJ to serve as a broker of information and promoter of information exchange. The National Criminal Justice Reference Service has been transformed to permit electronic access. It is the cornerstone of the Institute's advanced communications efforts. Since its creation more than 20 years ago, NCJRS has served as the Nation's central access point for information about criminal justice. During 1995, NCJRS responded to some 37,000 information requests a month, drawing on a bibliographical data base of nearly 140,000 documents. Also during the year, NCJRS, which went online several years ago through an electronic bulletin board, began linking users via the Internet and a presence on the World Wide Web. Users now can access resources in repositories all over the world, download documents to their personal computers, and using special software (available free of charge), view the documents or print them exactly as they appear in the conventionally published version. The volume of information available makes a single repository of information impossible, but NCJRS's pathways help point customers toward the physical location of documents all over the globe. The Justice Information Center site on the World Wide Web makes available all the traditional clearinghouse services of NCJRS, but does so more rapidly and efficiently. Ordering publications and obtaining research assistance on criminal justice issues can be accomplished online. NIJ documents can be downloaded by users and printed on their own computers. For users, electronic publication means information can be kept current, and for the supplier, it means savings in printing and distribution costs. Online accessibility is speeding NIJ's grantmaking process now that the NIJ biannual Research Plan and related solicitations issued throughout the year can be found on the Internet and downloaded for immediate use. For members of the criminal justice community, the most useful feature of the Internet may be the opportunity to interact in electronic discussions with other members, either one-on-one or in groups. During the year, NIJ began setting up structures for creating online discussion groups on computer crime and law enforcement technology, drug courts, partnerships against violence, and other topics. A New Century and a New Philosophy Just as advancing technology will dramatically reshape criminal justice operations and increase information-sharing opportunities as the new century approaches, so too will forces in the larger society influence what criminal justice agencies do and how they do it. To illustrate the latter, the problem-solving paradigm that has emerged from the community policing movement is spreading to other parts of the criminal justice system. The heart of this approach is the recognition that communities must be coproducers of both safety and justice. In community policing, the police work as partners with members of the community to identify problems of crime and disorder, to define a strategy for responding to those problems, and to evaluate the effectiveness of the approach taken. The influence of this pragmatic, problem-solving approach is now being seen in other parts of the criminal justice system. In New York City, for example, the Midtown Community Court houses under one roof everything needed to hold misdemeanants accountable for their offenses: a courtroom to sanction them the same day they are arrested and a community service program to assign the jobs that constitute part of their sentences. The community is a full partner; judges receive community impact statements, sentences are served in the community, and the court works to address the underlying problems that led to offenses by providing social services such as drug treatment, HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) counseling, and social service referral. A similar philosophy is at work in some local prosecutors' offices that have adopted community prosecution. For example, in Boston, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Manhattan, Portland, and recently, Washington, D.C., district attorneys have set up mechanisms to give citizens direct access to their offices. The district attorney's representative talks with -- and even more important -- listens to citizens' concerns about pubic safety and provides information on defendants or cases that concern them. "Restorative justice" is another emerging model. Its primary objective: to right the wrong done to the individual victim and to the community. The approach envisions that every sanction will include consideration of public safety and accountability to both the victim and the community as core elements of justice. Now being used in some settings for juvenile offenses or less serious crimes, the process can involve a dialog between the offender and victim in setting penalties and determining compensation. To make amends to communities, offenders often are required to perform cleanup, repair, and similar tasks to improve neighborhood appearance -- a need particularly acute in the most crime-victimized areas. Another aspect of a preventive, community perspective is seen in collaborations among medical personnel, public health officials, and criminal justice practitioners aimed at controlling crimes that have long eluded a single-focus approach. The American Medical Association, for example, has joined in the effort to break the cycle of violence that so often begins at home. Its new guidelines enlist physicians and emergency room personnel to draw out information from patients who may be sexually abused or battered. On another front, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have been actively involved in efforts to curb the use of firearms by young people. Last year NIJ joined forces with CDC on a demonstration program now under way in three cities. The National Institute of Justice research agenda increasingly reflects this new thinking on joining the community and the criminal justice system. NIJ's goals for the future will explore how new forces and new knowledge can move the Nation toward a more secure environment and a more equitable and effective system of justice. Notes to Part 1 1 The Crime Act offices are the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Violence Against Women Office, Corrections Program Office, and the Violence Against Women Grants Office. 2 The NIJ National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Centers are located in Charleston, South Carolina; Denver, Colorado; El Segundo, California; Rockville, Maryland; and Rome, New York. The NIJ Border Research and Technology Center is located in San Diego, California. 3 The project studies State and local law enforcement efforts against transnational crime, including illegal immigration, street crime committed by illegal immigrants, organized crime initiated outside U.S. borders, and immigrant involvement in the drug trade (NIJ grant 95-IJ-CX- 0110, a study by William McDonald). ------------------------------ Part 2 Findings From the NIJ Research Portfolio Violence: Understanding Why and Reducing the Risks Measuring exposure to violence will enhance understanding of its impact on the development of children who grow up in violent settings. Crime rates have fallen nationwide, and the violent crime rate has remained essentially the same since 1992.1 Despite these trends, most Americans still express high levels of concern about crime.2 This public perception is due in part because one type of violent crime -- homicide committed by and against youth -- is increasing, as is the number of crimes committed with guns. Since 1985, the number of murders committed by 18-year-olds and the number of homicides committed with guns have doubled.3 In addition, the relationship between the victim and the offender appears to be changing. In the past, most murders involved a perpetrator and victim who knew each other, but in 1994, 13 percent of homicide victims were murdered by strangers, and 40 percent had an unknown relationship to their murderers.4 The increase in murders committed by youths and strangers and involving victims and assailants whose relationship is recorded as "unknown" contributes to a public perception that violence is becoming more random and intensifies feelings of apprehension and vulnerability. Not only do youths commit a large proportion of the murders in the Nation, but youths are often crime victims. Although young people ages 12 to 18 make up only 14 percent of the population, 30 percent of all violent crimes are committed against them.5 In 1994, 1 in 9 persons aged 12 to 15 were victims of violent crime, compared to 1 in 196 for persons aged 65 and older.6 Young African-American males continue to be the group most likely to be both the victims and the perpetrators of criminal violence. Linking Youth Violence, Guns, and Drugs According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, handguns are the type of firearm most often used in crime; murder is the crime that most frequently involves firearms; and youthful offenders appear to be more likely to possess guns than adults.7 In a recent survey of arrestees in 11 cities participating in NIJ's Drug Use Forecasting program, researchers found that 22 percent of juvenile arrestees carried a gun all or most of the time, and about 40 percent of the males reported ever possessing a firearm. Arrestees also reported high levels of victimization from firearms. About half had been shot at one or more times; 56 percent had been threatened with a gun; and 16 percent had been injured.8 Researchers are trying to determine more precisely the relationship between crime committed by youth and rising gun use.9 Criminologist Alfred Blumstein hypothesizes a link between the rapid growth of the crack markets in the mid-1980's and a rise in the use of firearms for protection, an increase in the number of juveniles who serviced the demand for crack, and a resulting diffusion of guns into the larger community of juveniles.10 Blumstein found that between 1985 and 1992, the arrest rate for murder among nonwhite juveniles increased 120 percent (from 7.1 to 15.8 per 100,000). Among white juveniles the arrest rate for murder increased by 80 percent (from 1.5 to 2.7 per 100,000). When he compared the arrest trends among young nonwhites for homicide and drug offenses, both rates had climbed together from 1985 through 1989, suggesting a relationship between the two. After 1989, the drug arrest rate declined moderately while the murder arrest rate essentially flattened out, but showed no corresponding decline.11 This divergence in trends may have occurred because law enforcement focused its efforts on containing drug markets, without a corresponding effort to constrain illicit gun markets. Researchers now are focusing their attention on specific types of guns, such as assault weapons, to learn which types are used by various subgroups of criminals to commit crimes. But little information exists about the use of assault weapons in crime, at least in part because the term "assault weapon" was not defined until passage of the 1994 Crime Act, which bans the manufacture, transfer, or possession of 19 types of assault weapons.12 The Act charges NIJ with evaluating the effectiveness of the assault weapons ban. The Institute has awarded a grant to the Urban Institute to study the effect of the ban on violent crime and drug trafficking. Understanding Why Violence Occurs NIJ continues to follow up on the recommendations of the NIJ-supported Panel on the Understanding and Control of Violent Behavior as it develops its research agenda. In its report Understanding and Preventing Violence, the Panel concluded that numerous factors influence the occurrence of violence, but the underlying causes are not well understood.13 Recent research suggests that exposure to violence during childhood and adolescence can perpetuate violence and contribute to emotional problems. With trends pointing to mounting youth involvement in crime -- as both offenders and victims -- a parallel increase in exposure to violence in the community, home, and school is inevitable. Current efforts to gauge the extent and, ultimately, the impact of exposure to violence are hampered by a number of methodological issues. Many studies, for example, do not distinguish between witnessing violence and experiencing violence. Others include questions regarding more severe events, such as shootings or attacks with a weapon but may not include sexual violence. Still others include questions about media violence. To explore ways to overcome these deficiencies, the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods last year developed and tested a new survey instrument for measuring exposure to violence. In a pilot test, researchers interviewed 80 individuals who are part of this ongoing longitudinal study. The results showed higher levels of exposure to violence among those who were older, male, and African American; among those who reported having participated in at least one violent event; and among those living in high crime areas. Even in this small pilot sample, 24 percent reported observing a dead body in the last year, and 66 percent had heard gunfire. Eventually, everyone in the study between the ages of 6 and 18 will be interviewed using the new survey instrument.14 The project will also examine the context in which the exposure to violence occurred -- for example, the location of the incident, the relationship of the victim and perpetrator to the individual, and the individual's reaction to the violence. Carefully measuring exposure to violence will enhance understanding of its impact on the development of children who grow up in violent settings and its role as a contributing factor in antisocial behavior. Use of the new measure is also expected to help in assessing the impact of violence prevention programs. Can significant changes in one's behavior as an adult, such as being employed or modifying alcohol or drug use, change the crime patterns of convicted male offenders? An NIJ-sponsored study conducted by researchers at the University of Nebraska found that the odds of committing an assault increased by more than 100 percent when an offender was using drugs. The University of Nebraska study supports findings from other NIJ-sponsored research showing that lack of marital attachment, too, is a strong predictor of adult criminality.15 Responding to Violence Both criminal justice and public health professionals recognize that violence and its consequences may be preventable not only by changing individuals' behavior but also by changing physical or social environments and by solving one underlying problem at a time. The limitations of traditional responses to violence have prompted explorations into new solutions and strategies.16 Some of the most successful opportunities for preventing violence depend on taking steps to reduce the potential for violence. With NIJ support, the Kansas City police tested one problem-solving strategy to control gun-involved crime: directed police patrols of gun crime "hot spots." By increasing seizures of illegally carried guns, the patrols resulted in a 49-percent decrease in gun crimes in the targeted area.17 Traffic stops were the most productive method of finding guns, with an average of 1 gun found in every 28 traffic stops. Drive-by shootings dropped from 7 to 1 in the target areas, doubled from 6 to 12 in the comparison area, and showed no displacement to adjoining beats. Another problem-solving technique being supported and tested by NIJ involves computerized mapping of a community to identify crime hot spots. The mapping technology, which has improved dramatically in recent years, has been used to identify drug markets, better understand crime patterns, and locate gang activity and turf.18 Arranging physical space to discourage crime is another step toward reducing the potential for crime. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) emphasizes the proper design and effectiveness of a created environment to reduce crime and enhance the quality of life.19 The Washington, D.C., subway system, for example, is maintained and managed with crime prevention in mind. Metro's low crime rate compared to similar systems suggests that it is possible to manipulate environments to reduce criminal opportunities.20 The problem-solving and CPTED approaches attack one or two factors at a time in the hope that small successes will add up to significant reductions in overall violence throughout a community.21 By combining the application of problem-solving techniques with longer term studies of the causes of violence, research can play a role in ameliorating one of society's enduring problems. ------------------------------ Juvenile Crime: An Escalating Concern Gangs have migrated to cities large and small throughout the United States. As family disruption, poverty, gangs, drug and alcohol abuse, and the deterioration of inner cities all grow more prevalent, the literature clearly documents how profoundly these conditions affect young people. These problems, or risk factors, all contribute to juvenile delinquency; indeed, the more risk factors in a young person's life, the more likely the youth is to exhibit delinquent behavior.22 Risk factors include: o Neighborhood environment: poverty, high crime rates, transience, lack of social cohesiveness, a dominant drug culture. o Family situation: alcoholism, substance abuse, criminal history, poor parenting. o Peer group influence: gang membership, association with drug-using youths, perceived endorsement of drugs by friends. o Individual predictors of delinquency: academic failure, poor attachment to school, early rebelliousness, experimentation with drugs. Of the foregoing risk factors, gangs are often among top enforcement and prosecution priorities, while certain other risk factors are addressed by such prevention-oriented programs as Children at Risk and Boys and Girls Clubs. The Impact of Street Gangs Street gang members consist of juveniles, including preteens, and young adults. In some cities, juveniles account for 90 percent of gang membership; in other locations, adults comprise more than half the members.23 Gang members commit both significantly more offenses and more violent offenses than comparable nongang offenders.24 The rate of violent offenses committed by gang members is reported to be three times that of nongang members.25 Gang membership also appears to prolong the extent and seriousness of criminal careers.26 The number of gang members committing violent offenses, inflicting serious injuries, and employing lethal weapons continues to grow,27 and an increasing number of gang members have easy access to greater firepower than the average police patrol officer.28 Homicides and other violent crimes account for about half of all recorded gang-related crime incidents.29 ------------------------------ Estimating the Number of Gangs Differing criteria are used to define gangs: the extent of the group's violent behavior, its organizational and leadership structure, territory, recurrent interactions, and sometimes symbols worn or used by gang members.1 Although the lack of a universal definition creates difficulty in gathering accurate and complete national statistics, estimates of the extent of the Nation's gang problem show steady increases. In 1988, 72 percent of all cities reported having a gang problem. In 1992, the number had increased to 85 percent,2 and by 1994, almost 90 percent of police departments in large U.S. cities and a majority in smaller cities reported gang-related crime problems.3 1 Curry, G.D., R.A. Ball, and R.J. Fox, "Gang Crime and Law Enforcement Recordkeeping," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, August 1994. 2 Ibid. 3 Curry, G.D., "Estimating the National Scope of Gang Crime from Law Enforcement Data," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, July 1996. Large cities are defined as those with populations of more than 150,000; smaller cities are those with populations of between 25,000 and 150,000. In 1993, a reasonable estimate is that 555,181 gang members in 16,643 street gangs committed 580,331 gang-related crimes in the United States. ------------------------------ Gang Migration Patterns In recent years, hundreds of cities throughout the Nation have seen the arrival of gang members, although usually in relatively low numbers.30 In a recently completed survey of gang migration from one city to another, 86 percent of cities that had experience with gang migration reported that an influx of migrants was associated with increases in theft, robbery, other violent crimes, and gun or sophisticated firearms use.31 Police agencies in 18 percent of the cities viewed gang migration as a severe problem. One-third said gang migration was minor or not a problem. Gang members who relocate are usually young African-American or Hispanic males. They tend to travel relatively short distances and stay at least several months. They migrate primarily to stay with their relocated families or with friends or relatives (57 percent), or to expand a drug market (20 percent). The character of gang migration at the local level affects the community's response to the problem. In cities where migration occurs primarily for social reasons, migrants can be targeted for prevention and intervention efforts. But cities whose gang migration occurs for the purpose of drug market expansion confront a qualitatively different problem. In these cities, research suggests that targeted law enforcement and suppression tactics, guided by anti-narcotics expertise, may have a beneficial impact.32 However, a study of street gangs and drug sales in two cities in suburban Los Angeles suggests that some law enforcement estimates might overemphasize the role of gangs in the illicit drug trade.33 In 1,563 cocaine sales incidents, the proportion of cases involving gang members was 30 percent in one of the cities and just over 21 percent in the other. The combined rate of 26.7 percent was far less than expected and indicates substantial gang involvement in, but not domination of, cocaine distribution. The researchers suggested that law enforcement agencies may wish to consider reassessing the merits of having specialized gang units with emphasis on narcotics enforcement, except in the unusual case of the extremely involved drug-selling street gang.34 Insights into some current efforts to combat gangs can be gleaned by viewing the problem from the perspectives of law enforcement officials and prosecutors. Investigating and Prosecuting Gang Crime Police chiefs and sheriffs responding to a national survey expressed concern about the increase in gang-related crimes and the difficulties in investigating those offenses.35 In particular, survey respondents commented on the time-consuming nature of these types of investigation. Gang-related homicides and assaults consume an inordinate amount of time because of the difficulty of interviewing reticent witnesses, victims, and suspects. Fear of retaliation is a major inhibitor, precluding many crime clearances and successful prosecutions.36 The fear of retaliation shared by victims and witnesses appears to be endemic in neighborhoods infested with gang activity and drug sales but virtually nonexistent outside those neighborhoods.37 Fear, however, is only one factor contributing to the phenomenon of uncooperative victims and witnesses; a deep-seated distrust of law enforcement may also strongly deter citizen involvement. Communities where gangs operate are often insulated worlds unto themselves where victims and witnesses know the gang members against whom they are asked to testify. Typically, victims and witnesses are the gang member's friends, relatives, classmates, and neighbors; they may even belong to the same church. They often view the crime as a private matter, not as a crime against the community. Gang-related crime directly affects prosecutors' already heavy workloads.38 In a national survey, 30 percent of prosecutors in large jurisdictions reported they had formed gang units using "vertical prosecution," in which one attorney or a small team handled cases from arraignment through trial and sentencing.39 Other prosecutors use existing specialized units (such as a drug or career criminal unit) or tag gang cases for special attention or high-priority handling. Some jurisdictions supplement vertical prosecution with highly proactive procedures, such as participating in the initial investigation by going out on the street with police to interview victims and witnesses and talk to gang members.40 Prosecutors in this survey consistently stressed the importance of offering immediate protection to witnesses in gang cases and of ensuring the cooperation of victims. Involving victim-witness advocates often helped the process. Prosecutors use a variety of policies, strategies, or statutory tactics against gangs; they may, for example, develop gang member tracking systems, participate in multiagency gang enforcement initiatives, transfer juvenile gang members to adult court, or enhance penalties. Preventing Juvenile Crime Prosecutors involved with gang issues consistently advocate early intervention and more effective services to strengthen families as the best way to prevent gang crime and violence.41 About 78 percent of prosecutors surveyed in large and small jurisdictions regarded as a major or moderate problem the lack of early intervention programs for youths at risk of gang involvement. The 1994 Crime Act combines prevention efforts -- including intervention at an early age -- with provisions for swift and certain punishment for serious violent crime. The Act fosters actions to prevent young people from joining gangs. G.R.E.A.T. (Gang Resistance Education and Training Project), for example, is a school-based program, and the Children at Risk (CAR) program and Boys and Girls Clubs are community-based, neighborhood programs. All strive to prevent youth from developing into delinquents. G.R.E.A.T. Initiated by the Phoenix Police Department and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms in 1991, G.R.E.A.T. teaches middle-school children, primarily seventh graders, how to build their self-esteem, resist negative peer pressure, resolve conflicts peacefully, and stay out of gangs. The 9-week program was initiated in 1991 by the Phoenix Police Department in conjunction with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. Its goal is to reduce gang activity by educating young people about the consequences of gang involvement. G.R.E.A.T. has been adopted by numerous law enforcement agencies across the country: As of January 1996, more than 1,700 officers from 47 States and the District of Columbia had complete G.R.E.A.T. training. Children at Risk Program The Children at Risk program is a large-scale experimental demonstration project that intervenes early in the lives of high-risk youths and their families to reduce and control the influences of drugs and crime. Through a unique public-private partnership, CAR is operated in six cities across the Nation.42 The Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University designed and currently manages the program.43 The Center is documenting the process of translating the CAR model into working programs. With NIJ support, the Urban Institute is evaluating the program and its impact on the children, the families, and the target neighborhoods. Preliminary analysis shows that, compared with a control group, CAR participants had fewer contacts with the criminal justice system during the first year they participated in the program than they had in previous years.44 The precise reasons for this difference are still being determined. A youth's participation in CAR may decrease his involvement in delinquent behavior; it also may be that the program is changing the way incidents are handled by the police and the courts. For example, courts and police may be handling minor offenses committed by CAR youths more informally, or CAR case managers may be acting as advocates when CAR youths are arrested or charged. Followup interviews at the program's completion will provide additional information on the extent to which CAR is reducing delinquency, altering system response, or both. In either case, CAR appears to be diverting youths at a troublesome developmental stage from early involvement with the justice system. Evaluators must still analyze the costs and benefits of CAR and identify breakeven points to estimate how successful a similar program must be to pay for itself. Boys and Girls Clubs In some neighborhoods Boys and Girls Clubs are one of the few alternatives to the streets. Frequently located in or near public housing communities, clubs typically provide tutorial programs, craft programs, recreational programs, mentors, field trips, and cultural excursions. More than 1,200 clubs can be found in every major metropolitan area across the Nation. The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) has funded 15 Boys and Girls Clubs of America in public housing sites. In fiscal year 1995, an NIJ-funded evaluation found that securing the trust of neighborhood youths and residents was both a major challenge and a primary key to the success of the programs. Programs that met their goals most successfully were likely to be managed by experienced, energetic coordinators; to have the active involvement of parents, schools, and community organizations; and to have links to existing community-based service providers.45 ------------------------------ Family Violence: Developing New Strategies for Responding Effective responses to family violence involve close collaboration among multiple agencies. Unlike most crimes, family violence usually consists not of a single incident but rather a series of escalating abuses. For this reason, counting incidents of family violence -- whether spouse assault, child abuse, or elder abuse -- is more complicated than counting other crimes, which are generally limited in time and do not involve one offender repeatedly victimizing the same person. Studies have shown that a history of family violence, abuse, or neglect is a significant factor leading to delinquency and later adult criminal behavior. (See the accompanying sidebar, "The Cycle of Violence.") Incidence of Family Violence To improve mechanisms for assessing the incidence of family violence and to respond to a mandate of the Violence Against Women Act (Title IV of the 1994 Crime Act), NIJ and the Justice Research and Statistics Association studied the methods by which States report the incidence of domestic and sexual violence offenses.46 The project was part of an effort to identify ways to improve the national collection of this information. The study found that a majority of States currently collect statistics on domestic violence (35 States collect data on domestic violence; 30 collect it on sexual violence). The States vary widely, however, in how they define these offenses, determine what is counted, and measure or report incidents. The variations reflect the differences in State criminal codes, the characteristics of State information systems, and the attention States give to domestic and sexual violence. Thus, State statistics are often not comparable and cannot be aggregated easily to develop national statistics. The Bureau of Justice Statistics recently redesigned its National Criminal Victimization Survey to improve its ability to capture information about violent victimizations of women. In the new survey, women reported about 500,000 rapes and sexual assaults. Friends and acquaintances of the victims committed more than half of these rapes or sexual assaults. The new BJS data reveal that women who experience violence at the hands of an intimate are more likely to be injured as a result of their victimization than are women who are victimized by a stranger.47 Ending an abusive relationship does not necessarily ensure a woman's safety. Many victims of spouse abuse leave an abusive relationship only to be stalked and threatened by the former partner. In March 1996, NIJ completed the first annual report to Congress on stalking and domestic violence in response to a mandate of the Violence Against Women Act. The report notes that 49 States and the District of Columbia now have antistalking legislation that can be used to protect women.48 ------------------------------ The Cycle of Violence The majority of abused and neglected children do not become delinquents, adult criminals, or violent offenders, although children who are abused and neglected are more likely than others to become involved in criminal behavior, including violent crime, later in life. The most recent research findings indicate that 20 years after their victimization, 49 percent of adults who were abused or neglected as children had been arrested compared to 38 percent of a control group.1 By 1994, 18 percent of abuse and neglect victims and 14 percent of controls had been arrested for a violent crime.2 As the box below shows, however, among certain groups, a large majority of abuse or neglect victims had been arrested: -------------------- Arrests for Victims of Abuse and Neglect by Race and Sex Numbers in column 1 represent: Abuse/Neglect (N = 908) Percent Numbers in column 2 represent: Control (N = 667) Percent Column 3 represents: Statistical Significance Violent offenses White females 4 3 ns Black females 18 5 p < or = .01 White males 18 17 ns Black males 50 38 p < or = .05 All nontraffic offenses White females 32 19 p < or = .001 Black females 50 27 p < or = .001 White males 53 50 ns Black males 82 64 p < or = .001 -------------------- These preliminary results suggest that the cycle of violence may affect black and white childhood victims differently. Childhood victimization appears to increase the already high risk of arrest among black males. "As one of a constellation of risk factors, abuse or neglect magnifies preexisting disparities between blacks and whites."3 These findings support policy initiatives to intervene early. It is also important to develop policies that recognize the high risks of neglect since the incidence of neglect is almost three times that of physical abuse.4 Abuse and neglect appear to have a greater impact on arrests for violent offenses as a juvenile than as an adult. Persons with juvenile arrests for violence are much more likely to have adult arrests for violence. This confirms other study findings that juvenile violence is a pathway to adult violence. Early intervention therefore assumes greater importance as abuse or neglect increases adult violence through juvenile violence. The findings also add urgency to the need to respond to the links between childhood abuse and neglect and later violence among black males, especially during adolescence. These results underscore the pressing need for early intervention to link these children and their families to appropriate treatment and social services. 1 Maxfield, M.G., and C.S. Widom, "The Cycle of Violence: Revisited Six Years Later." Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 150:390-395 (1996). 2 Widom's research followed two groups of children: one group known to be abused or neglected during the years 1967-71 and a matched sample with no official record of abuse. Records of arrests for all subjects were obtained in 1987- 88 and again in 1994. 3 Maxfield and Widom, op. cit. 4 Widom, C.S., "The Cycle of Violence," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1992. ------------------------------ Responding to Domestic Violence Responding effectively to family violence requires coordination among many professions.49 Health officials, for example, play a significant role in identifying, intervening in, and preventing family violence. Many reports come from hospitals or physicians after a battered woman has sought medical attention. In one recent study of employee assistance program professionals, nearly all the respondents knew employees who had been abused; many employees had experiences involving restraining orders or stalking.50 The corporate sector is beginning to recognize the value of domestic violence education programs in reducing the isolation and shame victims feel, in putting the violator on notice that such behavior will not be tolerated, and in increasing the victim's options and therefore willingness to seek help. Intervention by social service, law enforcement, and justice agencies must accompany or closely follow that of medical practitioners so that survivors of abuse receive immediate protection as well as the information and support necessary to escape continued violence.51 Law Enforcement Response To improve law enforcement's response to domestic violence, many agencies participate in interagency coordinating committees and training programs that recognize the key role law enforcement can play in linking victims to needed services. The most effective multiagency responses delineate the roles and responsibilities of each agency and encourage each to collaborate without interfering with the work of another.52 Such approaches may be difficult to build and maintain, but the results are well worth the effort. NIJ's evaluation of family violence training and technical assistance programs considered the impact of specific materials and training activities on the knowledge and behavior of law enforcement officers. The evaluation helps guide law enforcement agencies in training design and delivery.53 New research under the Violence Against Women Act of the 1994 Crime Act will examine the longer range impact of arrest. It will look beyond arrest to what happens at the prosecution stage. One study, awarded to Applied Research Associates, for example, is assessing a program that combines a mandatory arrest policy with a no-drop prosecution strategy and court-mandated treatment for batterers.54 Prosecutor Response NIJ awarded a grant to the American Prosecutors Research Institute to assess the present state of domestic violence prosecution.55 Preliminary findings indicate that half the prosecutors' offices that responded to a survey said their offices operated separate units or sections devoted to domestic violence prosecution.56 Almost all (95 percent) reported giving prosecutors special training. Formal policies at the arrest and prosecution stages had a noticeable impact on the volume of cases -- 92 percent of responding prosecutors said their jurisdiction's proarrest policies had affected the volume of domestic violence cases coming to them. However, few believed that the increased volume affected either general prosecutorial decision-making processes, or more specifically, plea negotiating procedures. When the victim was deemed uncooperative at the case screening and charging stage, 20 percent of prosecutors stated that the case was dropped. In larger jurisdictions (those with populations over 500,000), 8 percent felt that the victim's willingness to cooperate affected their decision to prosecute, whereas 36 percent of respondents from medium-sized jurisdictions (those with populations of 250,000 to 500,000) felt that victim cooperation affected their decision to prosecute. In another study, researchers surveyed offices in large metropolitan areas where the heavy caseload allowed prosecutors to specialize and see trends.57 These prosecutors expressed both a need and a willingness to learn more about domestic violence and found that victim participation increased when cases were prosecuted vertically because the victim and attorney tended to develop a rapport. Early contact with a prosecutor usually gave the victim better protection as well. Although the reluctance of victims to testify continues to impede domestic violence prosecution, some offices are moving toward investigating domestic violence cases in much the same way they handle homicide cases. They may, for example, look for other evidence, such as recordings from 911 calls, hospital records, photographs, and the statements of neighbors and other potential witnesses, to support the case without the victim's testimony. At the same time, victim advocates recommend working closely with women who fear retaliation to help them recognize their alternatives and follow through on them. Other Tools for Helping Victims Arrest and prosecution are not the only approaches available to victims of family violence. Two other common mechanisms involve civil protection orders, which can be issued to keep the perpetrator away from the victim, and mediation services, which require both parties to work out mutually agreeable arrangements about their situation. Civil Protection Orders Civil protection orders are one of the primary tools courts use to deter domestic violence, advise the perpetrator that domestic violence is illegal, and provide sanctions against further abuse or threats of violence or even contact. Previous research suggests that protection orders can be more effective when the terms are specific, comprehensive, and enforced. The more specific the terms, the greater the basis law enforcement officers and the courts have for enforcing violations. However, research also indicates that enforcement of civil protection orders is often inconsistent,58 that many courts have no guidelines for ordering relief, and that judges may not grant terms that offer greater safety and autonomy to the petitioner.59 Mediation Services Some research supports proponents' claims that, compared to the traditional adversary process, mediation is perceived as fairer because it puts less pressure on participants to make unwanted agreements. Proponents say that mediation produces more satisfying agreements and gives participants more control over decisions. Arguing against the use of mandatory mediation programs when domestic violence is involved are advocates for battered women and feminist scholars, who warn that a consensual or collaborative decision-making process is not possible between a victim and an abuser. Although some advocates for abused women favor voluntary mediation, all strongly oppose requiring victims to mediate, and some have gone so far as to insist that women who have been abused not be allowed to mediate. At least one area of consensus exists: both groups support the need for adequate training of mediators and the practice of screening mediation referrals for domestic abuse.60 Mediators report that when domestic violence is an issue, they make subtle adjustments in their role as mediator, such as being more proactive, being satisfied with a lowering of the level of hostility when an agreement appears unlikely, or referring parties to additional resources. Responding to Child Abuse The number of children who were "substantiated" victims of maltreatment increased from nearly 800,000 in 1990 to more than one million in 1994, an increase of 27 percent.61 Getting convictions in child abuse cases requires a specialized set of skills and teamwork. To discover what makes a team successful, researchers studied the San Diego district attorney's office, which has aggressively prosecuted cases involving child physical abuse and neglect and has achieved high felony conviction rates.62 San Diego employs a closely coordinated, multiagency approach that involves specialized staff from the police department, the prosecutor's office, child protective services, and the medical community. However, every professional interviewed believed that jurors needed more information about the dynamics and seriousness of physical abuse cases because the juries tended not to believe that parents or caretakers intentionally harm children. Many cases of child maltreatment run into problems because they involve both criminal and family court proceedings. Cases can be initiated by different government entities and pursue processes that may be incompatible, inefficient, and deleterious to the child and family. In family court, the goal is to protect the child, rehabilitate the family if possible, and ensure a permanent home for the child. A criminal proceeding, on the other hand, is brought to determine guilt or innocence as a primary element in protecting the public, deterring future crime, punishing wrongdoing, and rehabilitating the criminal. An NIJ-funded study conducted by the Education Development Center, Inc., and the American Bar Association found that many child protection and law enforcement agencies work reasonably well together during the investigation process but frequently do not cooperate in litigation proceedings.63 The researchers suggested that because family court proceedings precede criminal proceedings in most cases, steps should be taken to allow juvenile cases to go forward without prejudicing the rights of the parents or harming the prosecution. Ultimately, coordination of child maltreatment proceedings depends on good communication between counsel for the child protection agency and the criminal prosecutor. Child protection attorneys should be included on the multidisciplinary case review teams that operate in many communities. ------------------------------ Community Policing: A Focal Point of Innovation An NIJ study of 2,000 law enforcement agencies found strong support for community policing and a need for training both police and citizens. Community policing represents a shift in emphasis from reactive, incident-driven police service to a proactive, problem-solving approach in which the community plays a role in identifying public safety issues to be addressed.64 Police agencies across the country are making community policing a key part of their strategy. In a 1993 NIJ-supported study of more than 2,000 law enforcement agencies, researchers found both strong support for community policing and a need to develop training for practitioners and citizens.65 Almost half the respondents had either implemented community policing (19 percent) or were in the process of doing so (28 percent). According to the study, about 40 percent of the Nation's larger police departments had adopted community policing. This percentage is likely to increase in the next several years as funding from the 1994 Crime Act strengthens efforts to implement community policing. Title I of the Act authorized expanded and improved cooperative efforts between law enforcement agencies and members of the community. The Act authorized an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of police officers already at work on the streets and stipulated that the funding be used to increase the number of officers who participate in community policing programs. The Nature of Community Policing Jurisdictions tailor their community policing programs to meet local needs, but all programs possess two core components: partnership with the community and problem solving.66 Citizens are integral to prevention and deterrence efforts, and early police participation in planning anticrime efforts is critical. The most effective community organizers are often professional organizers with ethnic, language, and political ties to the community. Their role involves maintaining program momentum, resolving conflicts between groups, and encouraging coalition building.67 A variety of problems affect a neighborhood's quality of life, and community policing looks for relationships among incidents to determine whether individual occurrences are part of a more complex problem. The police can ask members of the community to define problems and help them understand their causes and potential solutions. Problem solving is the area where interagency involvement is most critical and cooperative efforts show the greatest rewards. (See sidebar: Typical Community Policing Problem-Solving Techniques.) In an NIJ-sponsored evaluation of community policing programs in eight urban and suburban sites established with Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) support, researchers from the Vera Institute of Justice found that community policing represents a major change for both the police and the residents and is likely to take a long time to institutionalize.68 Experience in the eight sites indicated that the major implementation challenges were as follows: o Resistance from police officers, who did not fully understand the process. o Difficulty in involving other public agencies. o Barriers to organizing the community (such as fear of retaliation by drug dealers and cynicism about the perceived short duration of the project). Communities have found that meshing the operating styles and internal politics of citizen groups, police departments, and nongovernmental agencies can be difficult. The BJA Comprehensive Communities Program, now in place in 16 sites, works to overcome these problems by engaging all key stakeholders in an extensive startup phase of team building and planning for interagency and community-government coordination.69 Evaluation of the Program is now under way. Implementing community policing requires an examination of a department's fundamental values, mission, and organization. This approach affects every facet of a department's operation and expands the role of police beyond solving crime to improving quality of life. Implementation can take many years -- at least 5, perhaps even 10, according to one estimate.70 Most jurisdictions begin by converting a small part of the force to community policing. For example, the Tempe, Arizona, department began by converting 1 of its 15 patrol beats. Several years later, it expanded community policing to two other beats and finally to the entire city.71 ------------------------------ Typical Community Policing Problem-Solving Techniques Police apply problem-solving techniques to improve a neighborhoods quality of life, focus police activities, and better understand a community. Typical problems and potential solutions include: o Loitering Remove pay phones that attract drug dealing and coordinate with homeless shelters to deflect the homeless from the streets. o Public drinking Issue public-drinking summons and cite bars that permit underage drinking and illegal sales. o Abandoned buildings Install fencing or otherwise secure abandoned buildings and initiate procedures leading to demolition. Problem-solving techniques also can be applied to the difficulties inner-city students may experience as they travel to and from school (such as being teased, robbed, harassed, intimidated, bullied, or drawn into a fight), to street-level drug markets, to concentrations of serious traffic accidents, and to police handling of mental health emergencies. ------------------------------ Impact of Community Policing Research to date suggests that community policing can make a positive difference; it reduces fear of crime and social and physical disorder and improves citizens' relationship with the police.72 Preliminary findings from about 60 empirical studies of community policing found the following:73 o Crime A slight majority of the studies report a decrease in crime, which gives reason for optimism, although limitations in evaluation design preclude authoritative conclusions. o Fear of crime The now widely accepted view that community policing helps reduce fear of crime and increase perceptions of safety seems reasonably well founded, although some police efforts have failed to reduce fear. o Disorder Available evidence suggests that community policing -- especially foot patrols and problem-solving efforts -- helps reduce levels of disorder. o Community relations The vast majority of studies report positive effects. Citizens generally appreciate foot patrols, ministations in their neighborhoods, emphasis on problem solving, and other facets of community policing. o Police officer attitudes Most studies that have investigated the impact of community policing on officers' job satisfaction, on community members' perceptions of the police, and on related attitudes indicate beneficial effects, even though many sites report initial resistance among officers.74 o Police officer behavior Significant anecdotal evidence suggests that foot patrols, problem-solving techniques, permanent assignments, ministations, and other features of community policing lead to changes in some police officers' behavior. But many officers also resist community policing because they oppose its philosophical underpinnings, lack a complete understanding of their new role, or simply dislike change.75 According to one study of its wider impact, community policing appears to affect most often agencies that deal with lower level crimes by increasing, for example, the workload of courts that handle offenses such as prostitution, loitering, and vandalism.76 Community policing also has promoted proactive partnerships between police and prosecutors; in Multnomah County, Oregon, for example, the prosecutor followed the lead of police and established a community prosecution program that assigned district attorneys to neighborhoods. Community policing also was found to create strong ties with many local government offices and agencies -- such as housing departments, child welfare agencies, health departments, schools, and the like -- that assist law enforcement agencies in many ways. ------------------------------ Drug-Related Crime: Trends and Responses The criminal justice system is a logical, potentially cost-effective point of treatment intervention for incarcerated drug abusers. Both alcohol and drug abuse continue to take their toll on users, the community, and the criminal justice system as the number of drug-involved offenders keeps increasing.77 Several characteristics of drug-related crime and of the people who commit such crime are generally acknowledged: o Drug abusers commit a disproportionate number of crimes, both violent and nonviolent. (A discussion of the linkage of violence, drugs, and youths can be found in the section on Violence.) o Treatment can make a difference. Treatment supervised within the criminal justice system can reduce drug use, and a reduction in drug use decreases criminality, even among relatively hard-core drug users.78 o In most jurisdictions, nonviolent addicted offenders typically become caught in a chronic pattern of drug use, criminal activity, arrest, release, then continued drug use and crime; they often receive little jail time and no treatment for their addictions. Detecting Drug Use and Analyzing Trends The Drug Use Forecasting program was pioneered by NIJ in the late 1980's. Now operating in 23 sites around the country, DUF documents trends in the use of specific drugs among arrestees by tracking the extent and type of drug use in this population through the use of urinalyses and interviews.79 A successful example of Federal and local partnership, DUF remains one of the leading providers of information about illegal drug use. Criminologists, epidemiologists, local practitioners, and others regard DUF as an important source of statistics about drug abuse. In 1995, DUF found that rates of cocaine use were somewhat lower than in previous years, but that marijuana rates had increased; opiate use was largely unchanged. For the second year in a row, juveniles and young adults increased their marijuana use, and 8 of the 12 DUF sites that collect data on juvenile arrestees reported that juveniles also increased their cocaine use. The increases raise questions about the relationship between cocaine and marijuana use and what the consequences of this increased use will be for the decisions that policymakers, practitioners, and researchers will need to make in the near future. The DUF program provides a flexible research platform upon which to build a wide array of special studies based on arrestee data. Already NIJ has undertaken special studies on the procurement of cocaine and heroin as well as on the availability of firearms to arrestees and their use of these weapons. By adding questions to the basic DUF interview, information on a number of special issues can be gathered. This flexibility enables DUF to respond rapidly to emerging criminal justice issues of national, regional, and local importance. As part of the DUF program, NIJ has supported research into hair analysis, a simpler and relatively less invasive method than urinalysis for detecting illegal drug use.80 A 2-inch strand of hair can reveal drug use over a 4-month period, although, unlike urinalysis, hair analysis cannot detect very recent drug usage.81 Hair analysis is being used in correctional settings in three States, and NIJ is funding projects to more fully integrate hair testing into DUF data collection as well as to compare detection rates for hair analysis and urinalysis.82 Treatment for Offenders The literature shows clearly that drug treatment can result in substantial reductions in drug use, criminality, and associated problems. Because significant numbers of drug abusers are incarcerated at some point, the criminal justice system is a logical, potentially cost-effective, and convenient point of intervention. This approach also provides the opportunity to use the power of the court to coerce treatment, which research has shown to be effective in reducing drug use. Without treatment, abusers are likely to return to drug use and crime upon release.83 But the success rate of treatment programs depends on many factors that are often hard to measure and compare across settings -- the kinds of offenders and their criminal history, the type and frequency of drug abuse, and the characteristics of the program. Efforts to mitigate drug abuse have usually centered on short-term treatment alternatives.84 One of the more innovative approaches in use around the country is the treatment-oriented drug court (discussed in the Adjudication section of this report). Considered an effective way to handle drug offenders, drug courts impose the minimum amount of punishment while coercing treatment in an effort to reduce drug use and associated criminality.85 Drug treatment for incarcerated offenders generally has received lower priority, although in-custody programs are becoming more common. About 30 percent of Federal prisoners with moderate to severe drug problems are being treated in residential therapeutic communities (TC's), programs that address the myriad problems of the drug-abusing lifestyle as well as the addiction itself.86 The most recent evaluations of prison-based TC's offer solid evidence of their effectiveness. Across programs and over time, these programs can produce significant reductions in recidivism among chronically drug-abusing felons.87 Successful completion of treatment programs appears to hinge on two primary characteristics: o Frequency of attendance The more often offenders attend treatment, the more likely they are to stay in treatment. o Duration The longer offenders attend programs and stay in contact with treatment counselors, the more likely they are to stay free of substance abuse.88 Outpatient programs also are more likely to retain clients when they are located in the neighborhood where the offender lives or provide transportation assistance to those who need it. Offenders also are more likely to stay in treatment programs when swift, certain detection of continued drug use or of missed treatment sessions is coupled with appropriate consequences. Those who believe that court or probation officials will learn quickly that they have left treatment and believe they will be swiftly apprehended are more likely to remain in treatment. In addition, those who expect more severe sanctions appear more likely to stay in treatment, as do those who report being highly averse to prison.89 Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Treatment A number of recent studies have demonstrated the cost savings obtained by treating drug abusers -- and thereby reducing drug consumption and resulting criminal activity and avoiding the medical and interdiction costs associated with drug abuse. In some typical programs, the cost of diversion into treatment is roughly $1,000 to $1,200 per person, an amount that would quickly be spent in a few weeks of detention.90 A cost-benefit analysis of the treatment of 150,000 participants in California found $1.5 billion in savings to taxpayers, due mostly to reductions in crime.91 Retaining Offenders in Treatment Several studies have compared retention rates for mandated and voluntary treatment programs.92 Although some studies show that coerced clients do as well as those entering voluntarily, assessment of the findings must consider a variety of factors, such as the varying degrees and types of legal coercion, treatment settings, and the offender's legal status and motivations. For voluntary programs, it is important to know why individuals choose not to enter treatment when attendance would result in benefits such as having criminal charges dismissed and court records expunged. One possible explanation may be that in certain subcultures a felony conviction is no longer a mark of shame; indeed, it may be a badge of honor or at least part of the expected course of life. Prosecutors also surmise that the sentences of first-time, nonviolent offenders are so light (usually probation) that these individuals prefer a less structured, though longer, supervision to the shorter, but more demanding, rigors of drug treatment.93 Understanding how treatment reduces drug use and criminality in major offender subgroups is a central objective of NIJ-funded research. One New York study found that retention rates do not appear to be related to the offender's age or ethnic background but rather to the type of drug the offender abuses -- crack users, for example, have relatively high dropout rates compared with offenders who abuse other types of drugs.94 Responding to Drug Abuse All jurisdictions face the problems associated with illegal drug use and abuse and are challenged to develop a range of effective solutions. Narcotic Eviction Program One innovative approach to dealing with drug dealers has been adopted in Manhattan, where drug dealers are being removed from residential and commercial properties on the basis of the Real Property Actions and Proceedings Law. Between June 1988 and August 1994, the program used civil procedures to remove drug dealers from 2,005 apartments and retail stores.95 In the Narcotic Eviction Program, witnesses can give anonymous tips and therefore do not have to testify in court. Because proceedings are civil rather than criminal, the judge can authorize an eviction based on a preponderance of evidence that drug dealing is occurring; no arrest is necessary. The State need only present credible evidence in court that an illegal drug business is taking place on the property. The program requires close collaboration among neighborhood residents, the police, and the district or city attorney. Drug Market Analysis NIJ supports the development of computer information systems that enhance law enforcement's ability to identify "hot spots" of street-level drug activity. A key element of the effort, called Drug Market Analysis, is the use of computer mapping to pinpoint illegal drug activity.96 The program combines multiple sources of drug information to produce a more complete and accurate picture of the geographic distribution of local drug problems. With a grant from NIJ, the Institute for Law and Justice found that targeting the "hot spots" resulted in a strong, consistent reduction in emergency calls for assistance in those locations; little evidence was found that drug activity was displaced to adjoining areas.97 Mapping technology can generate three types of information: o Descriptive data on distribution of calls for service, traffic accidents, or other events. o Analytical data, which identify "hot spots" of activity. o Interactive mapping, which allows the user to direct queries to a data base, map the results, make a decision on the basis of the maps, and start anew through the cycle. Interactive mapping in particular extends the capabilities of a law enforcement agency by allowing officers to continuously assess and evaluate information. Testing the Market Price of Drugs Understanding how drug use responds to changes in price is critical to understanding how enforcement affects drug consumption. NIJ has awarded grants to the RAND Corporation and Abt Associates, Inc., to examine the relationships among price, demand, and enforcement.98 Enforcement seeks to reduce consumption by deterring and incapacitating users and, through enforcement against dealers, by reducing availability and increasing price. Hence, enforcement acts as a kind of tax by raising the price of drugs, but whether police enforcement can actually increase the price depends on the elasticity of the demand. The RAND Corporation measured the elasticity of demand for cocaine and heroin and assessed the impact of enforcement on reducing consumption. The findings suggest that the dramatic increase in cocaine use during the 1980's and in heroin use since the late 1980's might be attributable more to significant price declines than to changes in taste or demand. The findings further suggest that when enforcement succeeds in increasing prices, it is more effective in curbing drug use than is commonly thought. ------------------------------ Adjudication: Experimenting With Specialized Approaches Evidence suggests that specialized courts can significantly reduce case processing time and backlogs. In response to increasing caseloads, courts are experimenting with ways to increase productivity and reduce case processing time. Specialized courts or dockets, which deal with specific types of cases and are linked to community services, are becoming more common. This approach appears to be especially effective with drug-related crime and family violence. Specialized courts or dockets offer a number of potential advantages: o Cases can receive more attention than they might otherwise because they are consolidated on the same docket. (It is argued that lower level drug cases sometimes receive limited attention because they are scattered across dockets that contain large numbers of more serious crimes.) o Specialized courts or dockets can often strengthen the ties between the criminal justice system and the community when offenders need the services of community agencies, such as drug treatment or spouse abuse counseling programs. o Better case management practices can result as staff become more adept at handling cases that have similar features. Where specialized courts or dockets have been instituted, processing times usually have been dramatically reduced.99 Although critics charge that "fast track" specialized courtrooms may encourage assembly-line justice, supporters counter that the increased efficiency may work to the defendant's advantage. Sentences become more uniform and more appropriate, and victims can put the crime behind them more quickly. Drug Courts More than half the offenders in most criminal justice systems have substance abuse problems.100 Many are nonviolent defendants who face little certainty of punishment and represent a long-term recurring problem for both the criminal justice system and society; they repeatedly cycle through the court, corrections, and probation systems, often without being held accountable for changing their behavior. NIJ research indicates that substantial numbers of arrestees have never been in treatment despite strong evidence that: (1) drug use and criminal activity are closely linked, and (2) treatment reduces both drug use and criminal activity among drug-involved offenders.101 (See the discussion of the effectiveness of drug treatment earlier in this report.) Title V of the 1994 Crime Act authorized the Attorney General to make grants to State and local jurisdictions to establish drug courts in response to the increased numbers of nonviolent substance-abusing offenders; this group has a high recidivism rate and accounts for a good deal of prison and jail crowding. NIJ evaluation results suggest that drug court programs can increase treatment success and decrease recidivism.102 Drug courts are configured in a variety of ways, but as they have matured and been implemented in more locations, several common characteristics have emerged: o Judges generally exercise considerable authority in leveraging the court's dispositional power to supervise and support the defendant's performance directly. o In some courts, current charges against nonviolent drug-dependent defendants who successfully complete the drug court regimen are dismissed or some other sanction is mitigated. However, not all drug courts use diversion; some pursue cases to conviction and impose other forms of punishment for more serious offenders as well as drug testing and treatment. o Nonadversarial or less adversarial working relationships among judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys are typical in the most effective courts, especially those that use diversion. o Providers of drug treatment and rehabilitation services are also partners and play a critical role in providing options for judges. Domestic Violence Courts An NIJ-supported survey of 319 full-service victim assistance programs in law enforcement agencies and prosecutors' offices found that the majority of individuals seeking assistance were victims of domestic assault; the most common assistance they received was information about legal rights.103 Like drug-related crime, domestic violence cases exhibit particular characteristics that make them candidates for specialized handling. In domestic violence courts, traditional justice system adversaries (prosecution and defense) and supporting agencies operate as a team to try to reduce the opportunity for continued abuse while the case is being prosecuted. These courts were established in the hope that speedier case processing would reduce opportunities for new violence to erupt and that special handling would make the court process less onerous for victims while giving ambivalent victims less time to recant. Specialized domestic violence court programs are operating in Duluth, Miami, Milwaukee, San Francisco, and Seattle. NIJ is evaluating the impact of the domestic violence courts in Milwaukee and Miami. The Milwaukee court is part of an evaluation being conducted by the American Bar Association of the substantive and procedural due process issues surrounding specialized courts.104 In Miami, the Crime and Justice Research Institute is studying the impact of an approach that focuses on substance abuse treatment for domestic violence offenders. It is well documented that alcohol abuse is a predisposing factor for violence among adults who show a history of chronic and aggressive behavior and alcohol abuse in adolescence. Other psychoactive drugs, too, may predispose an individual to violent behavior, depending on the amount and pattern of use.105 The Miami domestic violence court has adopted a new, more proactive judicial role pioneered by the Miami drug court. Because the domestic violence court jointly targets substance abuse and domestic violence, the evaluation of its effectiveness will have direct application to our understanding of the new role judges are playing in these specialized courts; of the collaboration between the criminal and civil justice systems; and of the partnerships forming among the staffs of treatment programs, community service programs, and the court. Community Courts In most large urban settings, criminal courts are crowded and often appear chaotic and overwhelming to people not familiar with them. Judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys may confront hundreds of misdemeanants every day, many of whom have appeared numerous times for similar offenses. Because of inadequate jail space and a lack of suitable alternatives, many courts have difficulty demonstrating to misdemeanants and to the larger community that crime has consequences. In New York City, one response to this problem is the Midtown Community Court, which handles misdemeanor cases that arise in Times Square and the surrounding residential neighborhoods.106 The Midtown Community Court has made a significant contribution to easing some of the problems that nag typical high-volume courts, such as the difficulty in developing appropriate, constructive court responses to low-level offenses (such as prostitution, shoplifting, and illegal vending), which contribute to a deteriorating quality of life in the community. The Midtown Community Court, which NIJ is evaluating, dispenses justice in the neighborhood where the crime was committed and encourages community participation in developing and supervising alternative sanctions such as community service. The Midtown Community Court operates in the following way: o Defendants are assessed before arraignment to determine whether they have a substance abuse problem, a history of mental illness, a place to live, or other life issues to be resolved. o A resource coordinator, working in the well of the courtroom, helps the court match defendants with drug treatment programs, community service and other sanctions, and a variety of services. The Midtown Community Court is the first criminal court in the country to locate health care, drug treatment, social services, and education programs within the court building. The court has created a set of graduated sanctions, ranging from single-session engagement groups -- for example, health education sessions for both prostitutes and their clients -- to long-term mandatory substance abuse treatment as an alternative to short-term incarceration. o Punishment begins immediately; in 62 percent of cases it involves community service, which is performed in the Times Square neighborhood.107 Compliance with community service requirements is substantially higher in the Midtown Community Court (75 percent) than in the centralized downtown court (50 percent). o Computer technology improves communication among police officers, court personnel, social services staff, and residents and increases each team member's capacity to be accountable. One unexpected result of the court's under-one-roof service delivery approach is that many offenders (roughly 16 percent of those sentenced to intermediate sanctions) have returned to the court to seek the results of tuberculosis and HIV tests, to get help writing a resume, to attend classes in English as a second language, and to earn a general equivalency diploma (GED). More than 110 offenders have returned to enroll in longer term drug treatment programs. Another benefit of the Midtown Community Court is the growing evidence of a reduction in street-level prostitution and in illegal vending on Midtown streets. During the court's first 9 months, prostitution arrests in Midtown fell by 31 percent while such arrests increased by 5 percent in the rest of Manhattan. During the court's first 15 months, arrests for illegal vending dropped 26 percent. Interviews with community leaders, residents, and police officers support the view that the visible incidence of quality-of-life offenses in Midtown has decreased dramatically. The Midtown Manhattan Community Court has demonstrated that development of a community court requires assembling a broad coalition of support, including residents, community leaders, social service providers, criminal justice officials, foundation and corporate supporters, and local politicians. Strong neighborhood support helped the Midtown Community Court find its home, overcome early opposition to court decentralization, and complete the complicated project in less than 2 years. Although other jurisdictions may face different issues, the obstacles inherent in the process of assembling a coalition of divergent constituencies -- each with its own unique agenda or special area of interest -- are likely to be encountered in other urban settings. Evaluation of Specialized Courts Although specialized courts have not been universally successful, evidence suggests that they can significantly reduce case-processing time and backlogs. For example, a study conducted by the State Justice Institute found significant reductions in case-processing time in special drug courts in Chicago and Milwaukee.108 An NIJ-supported American Bar Association study of the impact of specialized drug and violent crime courts in Milwaukee revealed that both courts substantially reduced the time from initial appearance to case disposition from nearly a year to under 3 months in both types of cases.109 In addition, plea rates, trial rates, incarceration rates, and rates of drug assessment and referral have remained relatively constant since the specialized courts opened several years ago, even though time to disposition has decreased radically. Other findings: o In neither of the Milwaukee courts was there a trend toward fewer prison sentences or shorter terms of incarceration or probation. Past studies have found that although specialized narcotics courts can process cases more quickly, they may also give lighter sentences. Arrangements are made, explicitly or implicitly, whereby the defense bar agrees to have clients plead earlier in exchange for more lenient sentences. Such a tradeoff between faster processing times and sentence severity, however, was not apparent in either of Milwaukee's specialized courts. o Trial rates in both drug and violent crime cases remained about the same after the specialized courts opened. The number of motions filed per case did not change in drug cases, but declined significantly in violent crime cases, from an average of 1.4 to just under 1 motion per case. o Although additional analysis needs to be conducted to confirm preliminary results, the specialized courts appear to have reduced sentencing disparity (that is, the extent to which sentences were not uniform for similar offenses).110 Evaluation findings and anecdotal evidence about specialized courts -- especially drug courts -- indicate that these approaches are working. Cases are expedited, defendants receive appropriate sanctions for the most part, the quality of justice is not compromised, and the severity of sanctions does not decrease. Using Juvenile Records in Adult Courts Research confirms that a small group of offenders is responsible for a disproportionate share of all violent crime, that adult crimes are correlated with juvenile crimes, and that identifying adult career criminals often requires the use of juvenile records.111 Reviewing the juvenile records of adult defendants can help judges, prosecutors, and probation officers make a number of specific decisions; in the past 15 years, many jurisdictions have enacted laws to ensure that juvenile records are available during adult court proceedings.112 If there is no access to juvenile records, adults with a history of violent juvenile offenses may be treated as first offenders. A study by the Institute for Law and Justice reviewed State laws on the use of juvenile records and suggests that States should consider enacting laws that authorize fingerprinting of juveniles charged with weapons violations that would be felonies if committed by adults.113 According to the study, States also should consider creating central repositories for storing and releasing juvenile arrest and disposition records to adult courts, permitting law enforcement use of juvenile records for investigative purposes, and creating limitations on expungement of juvenile records when subsequent adult convictions have occurred. ------------------------------ Corrections: New Challenges and Alternatives Boot camp graduates appear to do no worse than prison releases and, in addition, report positive experiences in boot camp. America's correctional population has grown about 7 to 8 percent annually in recent years and is now triple the 1980 figure.114 About 75 percent of the correctional population, however, is under supervision within the community.115 Of those incarcerated, about two-thirds are in Federal and State prisons; local jails hold the rest.116 Policymakers are considering a number of issues associated with the increase in the correctional population: the trend toward longer sentences, the advent of intermediate sanctions, the management of special subgroups, and rising health care needs. Since the 1970's, the social, cultural, and political factors that affect sentencing practices have undergone major transformations. There has been a significant shift away from judicial discretion and indeterminate sentences toward increasingly structured decision-making processes and sentences of imprisonment.117 Loss of confidence in the efficacy of rehabilitation and increased acceptance of deterrence, retribution, and incapacitation as primary goals of sentencing may further erode judges' discretion. Sentencing commissions and legislative guidelines require judges to apply a narrower range of statutory sentencing options or mandatory sentences as part of the effort to adopt comprehensive sentencing policies. Structured sentencing also helps implement truth-in-sentencing practices, reduce sentencing disparities in general and racial and gender disparities in particular, and link sentencing policies with correctional resources.118 Much of the discussion surrounding longer sentences focuses on violent offenders, both adult and juvenile. Between 1980 and 1993, violent offenders accounted for the greatest growth in State prison populations.119 Furthermore, almost all State-level criminal justice legislation today includes proposals to lower the age at which youths can be tried and sentenced as adults.120 As States continue to grapple with how best to use limited prison resources to keep the most dangerous criminals off the streets, the Corrections Program Office, created within the Office of Justice Programs following passage of the 1994 Crime Act, will make grants in fiscal year 1996 to States to construct new or improve existing correctional facilities to "ensure that prison cell space is available for the confinement of violent offenders."121 These grants are tied to the States' implementation of truth-in-sentencing laws requiring violent offenders to serve not less than 85 percent of the sentence imposed. NIJ has developed a comprehensive evaluation strategy to maximize the lessons learned from previous projects and provide timely feedback to inform subsequent program activity. Alternative Sanctions for Nonviolent Offenders A major option for dealing with nonviolent offenders is the imposition of intermediate sanctions, which are more stringent than standard probation but less punitive than incarceration. Designed to supervise certain types of offenders more effectively than regular probation or incarceration, intermediate sanctions include electronic monitoring, home detention, intensive supervision, day reporting centers, community service, day fines, and boot camps.122 Part of the promise of intermediate sanctions is their potential to help reduce prison crowding by applying them to those offenders for whom imprisonment is not the most appropriate sanction relative to their risk to the community. For intermediate sanctions to work properly, however, offenders and programs must be well matched, and programs must be well managed and adequately financed so that staff can monitor offenders' compliance with court-ordered conditions, such as restitution, curfews, drug testing, and treatment.123 Judges and correctional administrators often express strong support for intermediate sanctions, but in a national survey judges also expressed concern about their lack of knowledge about available programs.124 Boot Camps Boot camp programs, sometimes called shock incarceration, continue to be one of the fastest growing forms of correctional intervention.125 Initially designed for young males convicted of nonviolent offenses, boot camps currently house a broader spectrum of offenders, including juveniles and women.126 Confinement generally lasts 90 to 120 days, although several States operate 6-month programs. Boot camps are highly structured, intensive, and regimented and have military-type goals, such as building self-discipline and instilling a work ethic.127 Many programs allocate a significant amount of time to education, drug treatment, and other rehabilitation activities and regard assignment of offenders to community-based aftercare services as critical to reducing recidivism. Most research supports the conclusion that boot camp graduates do no worse than comparable groups of prison releasees, and unlike inmates incarcerated in conventional prisons, boot camp participants say their experiences were positive and that they changed for the better.128 Results in one State suggest that boot camp graduates who are supervised more intensively during the aftercare period may adjust to the community better and ultimately have lower reincarceration rates.129 As noted earlier, the 1994 Crime Act authorized continued funding for boot camps, and NIJ awarded grants totaling $630,000 for research and evaluation of this alternative method of incarceration. Day Reporting Centers By the end of 1994, 114 day reporting centers were operating in 22 States.130 Several characteristics distinguish this approach from other intermediate sanctions. First, as a condition of release, offenders must report to the center frequently and must participate in the programs, activities, and services offered there. Second, the number of hours of contact per week are generally higher than the offender would otherwise be required to have. Finally, centers provide or broker services, activities, or treatments that either would not be available or would be available only in a less focused and intensive manner.131 Operated by private or public agencies, centers usually accept serious offenders and aim to accept: (1) those who otherwise would be incarcerated, or (2) those on probation or parole who represent the highest risk to the community. Many programs, however, appear to be selecting low-risk drug- and alcohol-using offenders. Experience to date indicates that the rate at which offenders must leave the program because they have committed new crimes, failed to participate in treatment, or violated other rules is high, ranging from 14 percent to 86 percent and averaging 50 percent.132 Rigorous process and outcome evaluations are now being conducted to determine more precisely the effects of the centers on offenders' behavior, including recidivism.133 Health Care and Special Needs in Prisons Like the larger society, America's prison administrators face rising health care costs; in response, they are developing comprehensive management information systems to monitor how various cost-containment measures are working.134 They are also keenly aware of the record high numbers of inmates who have tested positive for tuberculosis and HIV135 and the growing diversity of the correctional population. A major challenge facing prison officials is the development of efficient, effective methods for classifying and responding to issues relating to the increasing numbers of elderly, female, and mentally ill inmates with diverse and special needs.136 Elderly Offenders The next decade will witness more inmates who will have spent not only what would have been their adult working lives but also their retirement years in institutions. The typical prison was designed to hold and control the young and physically vigorous; it is ill-suited for older populations. Approximately one-third of older offenders are known to have one or more chronic health problems, such as diabetes, vision or hearing loss, cardiovascular problems, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), tuberculosis, and Alzheimer's disease, and disproportionate amounts of resources must be spent caring for them. Not surprisingly, many elderly inmates have special needs -- special diets, physical therapy, pharmacy services, nursing care, separate or accessible housing, and related supportive services -- most of which do not fit into the traditional structure and operation of prisons. Female Offenders In the last decade, the number of women in State prisons has increased 75 percent.137 The majority of these women are young, low income, and members of minority groups. Most are their children's primary caretakers. Many also have serious drug problems. Despite the rapid increase in imprisoned women, their relatively small number (compared with men) has limited the amount of attention they receive, the variety of programs offered to them, and innovations in their management. Regardless of the risk a woman presents or whether she is pregnant, drug addicted, or HIV positive, she is often assigned to one or two State facilities that must serve a range of inmates with very different needs. Mentally Disabled Inmates Jails are particularly affected by the prevalence of mentally disabled detainees; the approximately 10.1 million admissions to jails each year include about 700,000 with acute or severe mental illnesses.138 The Americans With Disabilities Act not only governs how jails and prisons provide mental health screening, evaluation, and treatment but also specifies how correctional facilities are to make their programs, services, and activities accessible to inmates with mental disabilities.139 Jail administrators report using a variety of techniques to handle mentally ill detainees; most common are administering psychotropic medications and offering crisis intervention services; less common are bringing in psychotherapists and providing special housing units. The weakest element of jail programs appears to be discharge planning, which is provided by only 26 percent of the jail administrators who responded to a recent NIJ-supported survey.140 Sex Offenders Although sex offenders are a dangerous group because they show a continued propensity to reoffend, information from research, theory, and practice suggests that many sex offenders can be effectively managed during probation and parole when appropriate strategies for containing their behavior are in place. An NIJ study reports that the "containment approach" involves: (1) teaching sex offenders to achieve personal control of their inappropriate sexual feelings, impulses, and behaviors; (2) exerting external control over sex offenders by imposing or threatening to impose criminal justice sanctions; and (3) using the polygraph to combat sex offenders' reluctance to disclose the information necessary for effective monitoring of their impulses, behaviors, and compliance with mandated supervision conditions. This approach spins a tight web of accountability that sex offenders cannot manipulate.141 ------------------------------ Science and Technology: Exciting Advances In partnership with other agencies, NIJ is developing technology to detect concealed weapons in public places. As homicide and other violent crimes that frequently involve firearms continue to plague American society, detecting hidden weapons, developing "smart gun" technology, and finding advanced methods of solving crimes involving firearms continue to be priorities. At the request of the President and the Attorney General, NIJ, the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, and the Department of Defense have begun a multiproject initiative to develop advanced technologies to detect concealed weapons in public areas and on the street better than the metal detectors currently in use. NIJ's smart gun project seeks to prevent an unauthorized person from firing a law enforcement officer's firearm by developing a technology that recognizes that person as unauthorized.142 The goal of the current work is not to develop a prototype firearm but to evaluate potential technologies that will lead to the production of a reliable, highly safe mechanism. Another highlight of 1995 was the significant expansion of technology work into the field of corrections. A new committee was formed of some 80 corrections practitioners whose mission is to identify pressing correctional needs and make recommendations about priorities in the area of technology. Less-Than-Lethal Weapons Over the years, controversy about the use of deadly force has led NIJ to focus research on alternative methods for apprehending combative and violent suspects and controlling prisoners. Research on less-than-lethal technology continued in fiscal year 1995 with support of new or improved technologies and with evaluations of commercial devices such as pepper spray and stun devices that offer less violent means of enforcing public order and controlling hostile prison situations.143 To help frame the discussion of less-than-lethal weapons, NIJ solicits the expertise of practitioners, scientists, and policymakers to assist in identifying the potential utility of various devices and systems and the policy issues that surround them. During fiscal year 1995, NIJ supported an evaluation of the effectiveness of pepper spray (oleoresin capsicum) in police confrontations with humans and animals. A research team from the International Association of Chiefs of Police analyzed the Baltimore County Police Department's policies on pepper spray, the department's implementation training, and officers' use of this agent.144 The study found that a well-developed pepper spray program benefited police: the spray successfully incapacitated persons in 90 percent of the confrontations, and use-of-force complaints decreased 53 percent despite decreased manpower and increased demand for services.145 NIJ supports investigations of other new less-than-lethal technologies. For example, Sandia National Laboratories developed a prototype dispenser to apply nontoxic sticky foam to restrain unruly prison or jail inmates at distances up to 30 feet.146 An unusual experimental device that has received widespread interest is a rear seat airbag that restrains arrestees or prisoners who suddenly become violent in the back seat of police cars during transport.147 Forensic Sciences The rise in homicides has focused attention on the quality of death investigations. For years, inadequately performed death investigations have plagued the medicolegal system. A number of activities took place during the year to help improve the process: o NIJ selected Occupational Research Assessment, Inc., in Big Rapids, Michigan, to develop model death investigation procedures and guidelines for training death investigators. o Development began of a data base of linguistic methods to expand the ability to determine authorship of documents. o Investigation began into the ability to determine guilt or innocence using gunshot residues. (Gunshot residues are traces of unburned gunpowder, primer, and bullet material that escape from a firearm when it is discharged and are deposited on the hands, face, or clothing of the individual who discharged the weapon or of the victim.) o Studies are being conducted to determine the accuracy of a technique to assess gunshot residue. Early results indicate that the success of the technique, called capillary electrophoresis, depends on the weapon and ammunition used.148 The tests further indicate that although capillary electrophoresis cannot determine when a weapon was fired, it has significant advantages over previous methods: it is quicker and significantly less expensive, the equipment requires less space, the technology can be calibrated to conduct other kinds of analysis, and it uses no environmentally hazardous solvents. o Studies are being conducted of the adherence and retention capacities of gunshot residue, of a special photographic process called high-speed stroboscopic photography to calculate velocities and therefore the distances between victim and shooter, and of the utility of a fluorescence method to detect gunshot residue at a crime scene.149 Some methods of gathering and testing evidence at a crime scene destroy the evidence in the process, but fluorescence does not. DNA Identification The 1994 Crime Act authorized funds for competitive grant programs for States and localities to develop or improve DNA identification capabilities. DNA typing will soon become so prevalent that the sheer number of samples will overwhelm forensic laboratories unless improvements are made in techniques. In 1996, NIJ expects to award grants to increase the capacity of State and local forensic laboratories to conduct DNA testing. NIJ supports efforts to develop and apply quicker, more efficient methods of typing DNA and to improve DNA data bases. Such efforts include capillary electrophoresis, laser-induced fluorescence,150 and nonsequencing technology for determining mitochondrial DNA variation. In 1995, NIJ supported an investigation into cases in which DNA evidence was used to exonerate individuals who had been wrongfully convicted after jury trials and sentenced to long prison terms. The study describes the cases of 28 individuals who, through the use of postconviction forensic DNA technology, were found to be innocent of the crimes for which they were convicted.151 Fingerprint Identification In 1990, NIJ began supporting development of a small, portable device to collect fingerprints. The "Magic Wand" is a hand-held tool that is revolutionizing the gathering of fingerprints at a crime scene. It is now available commercially for about $150. The magic wand dispenses cyanoacrylates (super glue) mixed with a dye. After suspect areas are "fumed," fingerprints are frozen and dyed in seconds. Previously, any nonporous item suspected of harboring fingerprints had to be transported to a laboratory for testing or be dusted. Investigators using the wand do not miss or inadvertently destroy critical fingerprints, as can happen with dusting. ------------------------------ Summary The past year brought strengthened partnerships, wider community involvement, and advances in science and technology and in electronic communication. The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (the 1994 Crime Act) was the impetus for significant new NIJ research activity during fiscal year 1995. This research focused especially on violence against women, boot camps, and community policing. During fiscal year 1996, NIJ expects to support evaluation research about drug courts and their effects. Major work continued on NIJ's ongoing research program. The Institute added an intramural research component to its agenda and streamlined its proposal solicitation and review process. Looking back on the year, several important trends are noteworthy. Involving the Community Many locations around the country are finding that working with the entire community to control and prevent crime is a successful technique for improving the quality of life. Criminal justice practitioners and policymakers alike are learning how to collaborate more closely with social service agencies, civic groups, schools, churches, and other community-based organizations to deliver appropriate criminal justice system services. Community policing, community prosecution, and community courts are three techniques discussed in this report that employ a variety of local resources to improve the criminal justice process. Partnering With Other Agencies NIJ continued its strong collaborative relationships with other Federal agencies. With the U.S. Department of Defense, for example, NIJ is working on ways to transfer technology knowledge related to defense to law enforcement settings. Through the Interagency Violence Research Working Group, NIJ and several agencies within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services developed a joint solicitation to support basic research on violence against women and within families. Treating Drug Offenders Drug treatment within the criminal justice system is another focus of interest. Evidence indicates that drug treatment can reduce criminal activity and associated problems. Given that drug-involved offenders are responsible for so many crimes, researchers suggest that the criminal justice setting is a logical, and potentially cost-effective, point for intervening in their drug-abusing lifestyles. The search for better understanding about the factors that contribute to successful completion of drug treatment programs will continue to be a priority during the coming years. Dealing With Burgeoning Prison Populations The challenge of housing greater numbers of offenders for longer periods of time is prompting corrections officials to investigate options for nonviolent offenders for whom incarceration may not be appropriate. These alternative sanctions include boot camps, intensive supervision, day reporting centers, and other alternatives in which offenders are supervised closely within the community. Another consequence of the burgeoning prison population involves the special needs of many prisoners, especially their health-related needs. Corrections administrators are developing comprehensive health care management schemes to deal with the increasing number of prisoners who enter the system with AIDS, tuberculosis, and other conditions, as well as the increasing numbers of elderly inmates with special health needs. Other Institute Developments NIJ was involved in several other major initiatives during the year: o The Institute forged stronger links with the international community of criminal justice professionals. As crime trends worldwide continue to affect the United States, it is increasingly important for NIJ to stay abreast of and share information about international trends and strategies. NIJ strengthened its relationship with the United Nations, supported research to understand crime committed by and against illegal aliens, and improved electronic means for communicating with other countries. o Last year NIJ significantly expanded its technology research and development into the field of corrections and opened five regional technology centers to join the major center in the Washington, D.C., Metropolitan area and to give State and local agencies better access to information about technology equipment, standards, testing, and data base development. o The Institute made major advances in the implementation of advanced information technologies. The National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) was transformed for easier electronic access via the World Wide Web. NCJRS' Justice Information Center on the World Wide Web links visitors to numerous services and other Office of Justice Program bureaus and agencies. As the Institute enters fiscal year 1996, the initiatives mandated by the Crime Act and the activities of NIJ's ongoing research will continue to generate broader and deeper understanding about crime and criminal behavior. NIJ also will continue to collaborate with Federal and private partners and implement up-to-date techniques for improving electronic communications and dissemination of research-based information. Notes to Part 2 1 Perkins, C., and P. Klaus, National Crime Victimization Survey: Criminal Victimization 1994, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 1994:1. According to preliminary figures released May 5, 1996, by the Uniform Crime Reporting Program, serious crime decreased 2 percent in 1995 as compared to 1994, the fourth consecutive yearly decrease in reported crime. 2 See, for example, a New York Times/CBS nationwide poll conducted early in 1994, which found that crime or violence is a leading cause of concern. R.L. Berke, "Crime Joins Economic Issues as Leading Worry, Poll Says," New York Times (January 23, 1994). 3 Blumstein, A., "Youth Violence, Guns, and Illicit Drug Markets," Research Preview, June 1996. This Preview is based on a presentation by Alfred Blumstein as part of NIJ's Research in Progress Seminar series. See also Blumstein, A., "Violence by Young People: Why the Deadly Nexus?" National Institute of Justice Journal, August 1995. 4 Perkins, C., and P. Klaus, National Crime Victimization Survey, op. cit.:1. Forty-seven percent of victims were related to or acquainted with their assailants. 5 Bannister, T., "Evaluation of Violence Prevention Programs in Middle Schools," NIJ Update, September 1995. 6 Blumstein, "Youth Violence," op. cit. 7 Zawitz, M., "Guns Used in Crime," BJS Selected Findings, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, July 1995. 8 National Institute of Justice, "Arrestees and Guns: Monitoring the Illegal Firearms Market," Research Preview, September 1995. This Preview is based on research conducted by Decker, S., and S. Pennell (NIJ grant 95-IJ-R014; University of Missouri -- St. Louis and San Diego Association of Governments). The arrestees were interviewed during the first 3 months of 1995. 9 An earlier NIJ-supported study of gang homicides in Chicago attributed homicide increases to the growing use of semiautomatic and large-caliber handguns by criminals. See Block, C.R., and R. Block, "Street Gang Crime in Chicago," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1993. 10 Blumstein, "Youth Violence," op. cit. 11 Ibid. 12 The ban on assault weapons does not extend to weapons legally possessed before the law was enacted. In 1993, prior to passage of the 1994 Crime Act, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms reported that about 1 percent of the estimated 200 million guns in circulation were assault weapons. Reported in Zawitz, "Guns Used in Crime," op. cit. 13 Reiss, A.J., and J.A. Roth, eds., Understanding and Preventing Violence, Vol. 1, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994. 14 Selner-O'Hagan, M.B., "Draft Report: Assessing Exposure to Violence in Urban Youth" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-K005, President and Fellows of Harvard). 15 National Institute of Justice, "Adult Patterns of Criminal Behavior," Research Preview, June 1996. Research conducted by J. Horney, D.W. Osgood, and I.H. Marshall (NIJ grant 89-IJ-CX- 0030, University of Nebraska -- Omaha). 16 Roth, J.A., and M. H. Moore, "Reducing Violent Crimes and Intentional Injuries," Research in Action, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, October 1995. 17 Sherman, L.W., J.W. Shaw, and D.P. Rogan, "The Kansas City Gun Experiment," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, January 1995. Only guns were affected by the experiment. Calls for service and the total number of violent or nonviolent crimes reported did not change. Much remains to be learned about gun detection procedures (for example, the best ways to train officers about the constitutional issues surrounding traffic stops and other techniques for locating guns). Replicating the targeted patrols in other jurisdictions will show whether the policy produces similar results elsewhere. 18 For more discussion about mapping, see Rich, T.F., "The Use of Computerized Mapping in Crime Control and Prevention Programs," Research in Action, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, July 1995. 19 See, for example, Gordon, E.L., and W. Brill, "The Expanding Role of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Premises Liability," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, April 1996. 20 La Vigne, N., "Crime Prevention Through Design: The Case of the Washington, D.C., Metro." See also Smith, M.S., "Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Parking Facilities," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, April 1996. 21 Roth, J.A., and M.H. Moore, "Reducing Violent Crimes," op. cit. 22 Harrell, A., "Final Report: Longitudinal Impact Evaluations of the Strategic Intervention for High-Risk Youth"(NIJ grant 92-DD-CX-0031, Urban Institute). 23 Howell, J.C., "Gangs," Fact Sheet No. 12, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1994. 24 Curry, G.D., "Draft Literature Review: Responding to Gang-Related Crime and Delinquency," Commissioned by the National Institute of Justice, July 1995. 25 Spergel, I., G.D. Curry, R. Chance, et al., Gang Suppression and Intervention: Problem and Response, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, October 1994. 26 Ibid., p. 2. 27 Howell, "Gangs," op. cit. 28 Johnson, C., B. Webster, and E. Connors, "Prosecuting Gangs: A National Assessment," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, February 1995. 29 Curry, G.D., R.A. Ball, and R.J. Fox, "Gang Crime and Law Enforcement Recordkeeping," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, August 1994. 30 Maxson, C.L., K.J. Woods, and M.W. Klein, "Final Report: Street Gang Migration in the United States: NIJ Study Results" (NIJ grant 91-IJ-CX- K004, University of Southern California). See also the authors' article, "Street Gang Migration: How Big a Threat?" National Institute of Justice Journal 230 (February 1996):26. The authors note that less than half (47 percent) of the cities reported the arrival of 10 or fewer migrants in the previous year, while only 34 (5 percent) estimated as many as 100 or more recent arrivals. 31 Maxson, Woods, and Klein, "Street Gang Migration: How Big a Threat?" op.cit. 32 Ibid., pp. 26, 30. 33 Maxson, C.L., "Street Gangs and Drug Sales in Two Suburban Cities," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, September 1995. 34 Maxson, Woods, and Klein, "Street Gang Migration," op. cit. An NIJ-commissioned review of the literature on the role of gangs and gang members in the sale and distribution of drugs states: ". . .being a member of a gang is not a 'master status' in the sense that it controls the behavior of an individual gang member. Rather, individual gang members often act on their own or in subgroups outside the gang. Thus it is possible for an individual gang member to engage in drug sales outside the structure or influence of the gang or subgroup. At the other extreme, gangs may effectively control drug sales by subgroups and individuals. What seems clear from this review is that gangs seem incapable of and unsuited for the task of controlling street-level drug sales." Decker, S., "Arrestees and Guns," op. cit. 35 McEwen, J.T., National Assessment Program: 1994 Survey Results, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, June 1995:34. Survey data apply to 1992. In large cities, 73 percent of law enforcement respondents reported that gang-related crimes generated workload problems, 55 percent in medium-sized jurisdictions, and 45 percent in smaller jurisdictions. 36 Ibid., pp. 11-12. 37 Healey, K.M., "Victim and Witness Intimidation: New Developments and Emerging Responses," Research in Action, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, October 1995. 38 In the survey, 58 percent of prosecutors in large jurisdictions said gang-related crimes contributed to their workload problems, and in 38 percent of these jurisdictions, prosecutors had established specialized gang prosecution units. Only about 5 percent of the prosecutors in smaller jurisdictions had created these special units. 39 An ongoing NIJ-sponsored study is being conducted in Nevada by Miethe, T., "Evaluating Nevada's Antigang Legislation and Gang Prosecution" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0053; University of Nevada -- Las Vegas), to examine the utility of developing specialized gang units, the costs and benefits of vertical prosecution, special problems that arise during the prosecution of gang cases, and the use of antigang legislation. 40 Johnson, Webster, and Connors, "Prosecuting Gangs," op. cit. Some NIJ-funded evaluations are examining gang intervention and prevention programs operated by noncriminal justice organizations. See, for example, Bekelman, A.M., "Evaluation of Youth Gang Drug Intervention/Prevention Programs for Female Adolescents" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0051; Development Services Group), and Yin, R.K., and J.S. Sivilli, "Gangs as Targets of Intervention" (NIJ grant 92- IJ-CX-K022; COSMOS Corp.). The latter study examines the effectiveness of comprehensive programs -- those involving social service agencies, schools, families, peers, criminal justice system components, and community groups -- in intervening in the lives of high-risk youths. 41 Johnson, Webster, and Connors, "Prosecuting Gangs," op. cit., pp. 9-10. 42 Agencies supporting CAR include the U.S. Department of Justice (through the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the National Institute of Justice, and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention) and six private nonprofit foundations: Annie E. Casey Foundation, Ford Foundation, Pew Charitable Trusts, Prudential Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, and Ronald McDonald Foundation. 43 The Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse is a nonprofit organization founded in 1992 by Joseph A. Califano, former Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. 44 The preliminary analysis is based on the official records for the 228 youths recruited for the evaluation between January and May 1993 in Austin, Texas; Bridgeport, Connecticut; Memphis, Tennessee; and Seattle, Washington. 45 Pope, C., T.S. Bynum, J.R. Greene, and W.H. Feyerherm, "Evaluation of Boys and Girls Clubs in Public Housing," Research Preview, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, November 1995. 46 Weiss, J.C., "Draft Report: Assessing the Feasibility of Creating Centralized State Data Bases on the Incidences of Sexual Domestic Violence" (NIJ grant 95-IJ-CX-0010, Justice Research and Statistics Association). 47 Bachman, R., and L. Saltzman, "Violence Against Women: Estimates From the Redesigned Survey," Special Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, June 1995. 48 National Institute of Justice, Stalking, Domestic Violence, and the Effectiveness of Antistalking Legislation, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, March 1996. 49 As early as 1984, the Attorney General's Task Force on Family Violence noted the need for multisector responses to domestic violence: "Intervention in family violence [must come from] a strong, coordinated effort by the criminal justice system, victim assistance agencies, and the entire community. The resources of private individuals, of business, and of the media must be joined with those of governmental agencies." See U.S. Department of Justice, Attorney General's Task Force on Family Violence: Final Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General, 1984. 50 Isaac, N., "Interim Report: Corporate Sector Response to Domestic Violence" (NIJ grant 94-IJ- CX-0050, President and Fellows of Harvard). 51 Witwer, M.B., and C.A. Crawford, A Coordinated Approach to Reducing Family Violence: Conference Highlights, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, and American Medical Association, October 1995. The conference was held in March 1994. 52 Smith, B.E., "Prosecuting Child Physical Abuse Cases: A Case Study in San Diego," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, June 1995. 53 Newmark, L., A. Harrell, and B. Adams, Evaluation of Police Training Conducted Under the Family Violence Prevention and Services Act, Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1995. 54 Orchowsky, S., "Interim Report: Evaluation of a Coordinated Response to Domestic Violence" (NIJ grant 95-WT-NX-0004, Applied Research Associates). 55 Rebovich, D., "Interim Report: Prosecution of Domestic Violence Offenses" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX- 0039, American Prosecutors Research Institute). 56 In comparison, only 22 percent reported separate units for felonies and misdemeanors. 57 Taylor, A., "Interim Report: Study of the Prosecution of Domestic Violence Cases" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0003). 58 Harrell, A., B.E. Smith, and L. Newmark, "Court Processing of Restraining Orders for Domestic Violence Victims," Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1993. 59 Finn, P., and S. Colson, "Civil Protection Orders: Legislation, Practice, and Enforcement," Issues and Practices, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, March 1990, and Hart, B.J., "State Codes on Domestic Violence: Analysis, Commentary, and Recommendations," Juvenile and Family Court Journal 43(4) (1992). 60 Pearson, J., "Interim Report: Divorce Mediation and Spousal Violence" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0036, Center for Policy Research). 61 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, Child Maltreatment 1994: Reports From the States to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996. 62 Smith, op. cit. The success rate in San Diego ranged from a low of 77 percent in 1986 to a high of 94 percent in 1992, with an average of 85 percent in the 7-year period from 1986 to 1992. 63 National Institute of Justice, "Coordinating Criminal and Juvenile Court Proceedings in Child Maltreatment Cases," Research Preview, July 1996. This Preview is based on research conducted by Whitcomb, D., and M. Hardin (NIJ grant 92-IJ-CX- K034; Educational Development Center and American Bar Association). 64 One of the first works to discuss the need to shift police emphasis from reactive to proactive thinking was a widely read article by J.Q. Wilson and G.L. Kelling in the Atlantic Monthly. The authors made the point that disorder, even when not criminal -- such as the presence of rowdy youths, rundown property, or aggressive panhandling -- is a condition that can lead neighborhood residents to fear that crime, especially violent crime, is on the rise and to modify their behavior (for example, by staying off the streets) in a way that will actually invite criminal behavior (see Wilson and Kelling, "Broken Windows," Atlantic Monthly, March 1982). Subsequent research by W.G. Skogan is regarded by many as confirming the cause-and-effect link between disorder, on the one hand, and fear and serious crime on the other (Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods, New York: Free Press, 1990). 65 National Institute of Justice, "Community Policing Strategies," Research Preview, November 1995. This Preview is based on research conducted by Wycoff, M.A., Police Foundation. 66 As early as the late 1960's and early 1970's, national crime commissions had advocated that law enforcement agencies pay close attention to their bonds with the community. See President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967:100, and the Commission's Task Force Report: The Police, 120; National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968:167-168; and National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Community Crime Prevention, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973:1, 7. 67 Heilig, K.B., "Interim Report: Community Responses to Crime: A Multiple Case Research Study" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-K016, Center for Training and Research in Community Development). 68 Sadd, S., and R.M. Grinc, "Implementation Challenges in Community Policing: Innovative Neighborhood-Oriented Policing in Eight Cities," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, February 1996. 69 Rocheleau, A.M., "Interim Report: Evaluation of BJA's Comprehensive Communities Program" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0065, BOTEC Analysis Corp.) NIJ is evaluating 6 of the 16 BJA sites. 70 McEwen, J.T., "Interim Report: Community Policing in Tempe, Arizona" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX- 0058, Institute for Law and Justice). 71 Ibid. 72 Ongoing evaluation of the planning, implementation, and impact of five districts using Chicago's Alternative Policing Strategy found decreases in disorder and crime. See National Institute of Justice, "Community Policing in Chicago," Research Preview, October 1995. This Preview is based on research conducted by W.G. Skogan. 73 Cordner, G.W., "Interim Report: Fellowship: Rural Policing and Community Policing" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0006, Eastern Kentucky University). 74 Sadd and Grinc, "Implementation Challenges," op. cit., p. 7. Ongoing at this writing is an NIJ-sponsored study that among other things will measure officers' opinions on issues pertinent to community policing, such as the perceived value of community policing, feelings of personal efficacy, support of management, cooperation with the community, job satisfaction, changes in job roles, and other labor and management issues. See Hartnett, S., "Interim Reports: An Evaluation of Chicago's Citywide Community Policing Program" (NIJ grants 93-IJ-CX-K014, 94-IJ-CX-0011, and 94- IJ-CX-0046, Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research). 75 For example, researchers exploring community policing in Richmond, Virginia, found that the more positively officers viewed community policing, the less inclined they were to make an arrest; that officers who verbalized support for the community policing program were most inclined to behave in a professional manner (i.e., to initiate citizen encounters for both enforcement and assistance and attempt to establish close community-police rapport to improve safety and quality of life on the beat); and that, on average, officers who were very positive about community policing were twice as likely to get citizen compliance as officers who were negative. See Mastrofski, S.D., "Interim Report: The Impact of Community Policing at the Street Level: An Observational Study" (NIJ grant 91-IJ-CX-0030, Pennsylvania State University). 76 Jacoby, J., "Interim Report: The Impact of Community Policing on the Criminal Justice System" (NIJ grant 92-IJ-CX-K033, Jefferson Institute for Justice Studies). 77 The proportion of drug-using offenders among those arrested according to Drug Use Forecasting data has never fallen below 60 percent and has reached 85 percent, while the proportion of drug users who are incarcerated is even higher. Lipton, D.S., "Effectiveness of Treatment for Drug Abusers Under Criminal Justice Supervision," Presentation at the NIJ Annual Conference on Research and Evaluation, Washington, D.C., July 11, 1995. 78 Research that substantiates the significant accomplishments of correctional-based treatment includes: Wexler, H.K., D.S Lipton, and B.D. Johnson, "A Criminal Justice System Strategy for Treating Cocaine-Heroin Abusing Offenders in Custody," Issues and Practices, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, March 1988; Field, G., "A Study of the Effects of Intensive Treatment on Reducing the Criminal Recidivism of Addicted Offenders," Federal Probation 53(10)(1989):51-56; and Department of Alcohol and Drug Programs, State of California, Evaluating Recovery Services: The California Drug and Alcohol Treatment Assessment (CALDATA) General Report, August 1994. 79 See 1995 Drug Use Forecasting: Annual Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, June 1996. DUF operates in the following way: For about 2 weeks each quarter, trained local staff obtain voluntary and anonymous interviews from arrestees who have been in facilities less than 48 hours. The interviews are standardized across the 23 DUF sites. At the same time, urine specimens are obtained. Response rates are consistently high: more than 90 percent of the arrestees who are approached agree to be interviewed, and approximately 80 percent of those interviewed provide urine specimens. 80 Mieczkowski, T., "Hair Analysis as a Drug Detector," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, October 1995. 81 Urine testing can usually detect drug use within the previous 2 to 3 days. The exceptions are marijuana and PCP, which can sometimes be detected several weeks after use. 82 Mieczkowski, "Hair Analysis," op. cit.; Gropper, B.A., and J.A. Reardon, "Developing Drug Testing by Hair Analysis," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1993; and Baer, J.D., W.A. Baumgartner, V.A. Hill, and W.H. Blahd, "Hair Analysis for the Detection of Drug Use in Pretrial, Probation, and Parole Populations," Federal Probation 55(1)(March 1991):3-10. In New Orleans, criminal justice officials are conducting a study comparing the detection results of hair analyses to urinalyses. Participants are tested using both hair and urine at program intake and at regular intervals throughout their participation in the program. Hair samples are taken every 2 months. Random urine tests, averaging a minimum of 2 specimens per month, are also part of the program. See Mumm, R., "Interim Report: Implementation of a Diversionary Program by the Orleans Parish District Attorney for Drug Offenders, Utilizing Hair and Urine Testing" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-K004, Orleans Parish District Attorney). 83 Lipton, "Effectiveness of Treatment," op. cit. 84 Treatment alternatives include supervised pretrial release with requirements that the offender receive treatment (such as Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime), diversionary programs that refer drug-using offenders to community-based programs in lieu of prosecution or revocation of probation, and therapeutic communities that separate substance-abusing inmates from the general population. NIJ is currently investigating the long-term impact of prosecution on recidivism. See Hepburn, J.R., "Interim Report: User Accountability and Long-Term Recidivism" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0028, Arizona State University). 85 Tauber, J.S., "Drug Courts: Treating Drug-Using Offenders Through Sanctions, Incentives," Corrections Today 56(1):28. 86 Lipton, D.S., "Prison-Based Therapeutic Communities: Their Success With Drug-Abusing Offenders," National Institute of Justice Journal 230 (February 1996):12-20. 87 Ibid. 88 The preliminary findings from the study of treatment programs for probationers in New York City must be confirmed with additional research, but the trends are clear. See Falkin, G.P., "Interim Report: Evaluation of the New York City Department of Probation's Drug Treatment Initiative" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0056, National Development and Research Institutes, Inc.). 89 Young, D., "Interim Report: Effects of Different Criminal Justice System Strategies Aimed at Increasing Rates of Completion in Mandated Drug Treatment Programs" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0025, Vera Institute of Justice). Offenders who are convinced of the efficacy of a drug-testing regimen comply with conditions imposed by the courts and the various treatment agencies involved in their cases at a significantly higher rate than offenders who are in programs that do not do such testing, or do such testing in a way that minimizes the likelihood that illicit drug use will be detected. Deschenes, E.P., and M.D. Anglin, "Effects of Legal Supervision of Narcotic Addict Behavior: Ethnic and Gender Influences," in T. Mieczkowski (ed.), Drugs, Crime, and Social Policy, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1992:167-196. See also Haapanen, R., "Interim Report: Drug Testing for Youthful Offenders on Parole: An Experimental Study" (NIJ grant 91-IJ-CX-K023, California Youth Authority). 90 Mumm, "Implementation of a Diversionary Program," op. cit. 91 Department of Alcohol and Drug Programs, Evaluating Recovery Services, op. cit. 92 See, for example, Falkin, "Drug Treatment Initiative," op. cit. 93 McEwen, National Assessment Program, op. cit. 94 Young, "Mandated Drug Treatment Programs," op. cit. 95 Finn, P., "The Manhattan District Attorney's Narcotics Eviction Program," Program Focus, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, May 1995. 96 Rich, "Computerized Mapping," op. cit. 97 McEwen, J.T., "Interim Report: Drug Market Analysis" (NIJ grant 92-DD-CX-K031, Institute for Law and Justice). 98 Caulkins, J.P., "Interim Report: Summary of Findings: Estimating Elasticities of Demand for Cocaine and Heroin With DUF Data" (NIJ grant 93- IJ-CX-4018, RAND Corporation), and Rhodes, W., "Final Report: Heroin Prices and New Addicts: 1981-1994" (NIJ grant OJP-C-94-007, Abt Associates, Inc.). 99 Smith, B.E., R.C. Davis, S.R. Goretsky, A.J. Lurigio, and S.J. Popkin, "Drug Night Courts: How Feasible Are They? Assessing Cook County's Example," BJA Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Assistance, July 1993. 100 The percentage of arrestees who use drugs and of correctional inmates who have substance abuse dependence is extremely high. NIJ's Drug Use Forecasting figures show continuing high rates of drug use across a broad spectrum of arrestees. 101 D.S. Lipton reports that over 70 percent of active street addicts in New York City had never been in treatment and had no intention of obtaining treatment for their addiction. A similar study in Delaware found that an almost identical percentage of offenders in that State also did not seek treatment. See Lipton, "Effectiveness of Treatment," op. cit. 102 For example, about 60 percent of defendants who were processed in Miami's drug court had favorable treatment outcomes and lower rearrest rates and were less likely to be sentenced to incarceration compared to felony drug defendants tried in nondrug courts. See Goldkamp, J. "Justice and Treatment Innovations: The Drug Court Movement," Issues and Practices, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1994. Also see Tauber, J.S., "The Importance of Immediate Intervention in a Comprehensive Court-Ordered Drug Rehabilitation Program," Paper presented at the National Conference on Substance Abuse and the Courts, Washington, D.C., 1991, and Deschenes, E.P., and P. Greenwood, "Experimental Evaluation of Drug Testing and Interventions for Probationers in Maricopa County," Justice System. 103 McEwen, J.T., "Victim Assistance Programs: Whom They Service, What They Offer," NIJ Update, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, May 1995. 104 Smith, B.E., "Interim Report: Domestic Violence Case Effects of a Specialized Court (Milwaukee)" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0052, American Bar Association); and Goldkamp, J., "Interim Report: The Role of Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Domestic Violence and Its Treatment: An Integrated Approach in Dade County and Followup of the Domestic Violence Experiment" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX- 0028, Crime and Justice Research Institute). 105 Reiss and Roth, Understanding and Preventing Violence, op. cit., p. 13. 106 Sviridoff, M., "Interim Report: Dispensing Justice Locally" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0032, Fund for the City of New York). 107 In the first year of operation, defendants cleared and maintained more than 530 tree pits; removed graffiti from nearly 140 walls; and sorted, stuffed, and labeled free-of-charge more than 740,000 pieces of mail for nonprofit organizations. 108 Smith, Davis, Goretsky, Lurigio, and Popkin, "Drug Night Courts," op. cit. 109 Smith, B.E., and R.C. Davis, "Interim Report: Quality of Justice Issues in Specialized Courts" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-0060, American Bar Association). 110 Ibid. 111 For example, as early as 1986 Marvin Wolfgang reported that the more serious the initial crime, the greater the likelihood of adult violent crime. Wolfgang, M., T. Thornberry, and R.M. Figlio, From Boy to Man, From Delinquency to Crime, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. 112 Miller, N., "State Laws on Prosecutors and Judges' Use of Juvenile Records," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, November 1995. 113 Ibid. 114 Beck, A., and D.K. Gilliard, "Prisoners in 1994," BJS Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, August 1995, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, "The Nation's Correctional Population Tops 5 Million," Press release, August 27, 1995. 115 Ibid. 116 Bureau of Justice Statistics, "The Nation's Prison Population Grew Almost 9 Percent Last Year," Press release, August 9, 1995. Despite housing more inmates in 1994 than in 1990, Federal prisons saw a decline in the ratio of inmates to capacity during the period (from 151 percent to 125 percent), while the ratio for State prisons was relatively stable (117 percent in 1994). Jail space increased 93 percent between 1983 and 1994, with the jail population more than doubling. See Beck and Gilliard, "Prisoners in 1994," op. cit., and Perkins, C.A., J.J. Stephan, and A.J. Beck, Jails and Jail Inmates 1993-94, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 1995. 117 Dunworth, T., D. Parent, D. McDonald, and W. Rhodes, "Critical Trends in Criminal Sentencing Law and Practice," Research Application Review, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, March 27, 1995:1. 118 Tonry, M., "Intermediate Sanctions in Sentencing Guidelines," Draft report to National Institute of Justice. Such was the case at the Federal level through the efforts of the U.S. Sentencing Commission. Tonry reports that the Commission's evaluation indicated that the overall percentage of Federal offenders sentenced to probation declined from 52 percent in late 1984 to 35 percent in June 1990 and that, for example, the sentence severity for drug offenses increased by 248 percent during the period, with prison sentences for robbery increasing an average of from 60 months in 1984 to 78 months in 1990. For discussion of similar issues at the State level, see Dunworth, T., J. Esselman, and P. Murphy, "Data? What Data? Making Sentencing Policy," Research Application Review, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, p. 8. 119 Bureau of Justice Statistics, "Prison Population Grew," op. cit. 120 Dunworth, Esselman, and Murphy, "Making Sentencing Policy," op. cit. 121 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, Title II, subtitle A, sec. 20101(a). 122 An ongoing NIJ-sponsored research project by MacKenzie, D.L., "Probationer Compliance With Conditions of Supervision" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX- 0045; University of Maryland -- College Park) is exploring the relationship between technical violations of probation and the commission of new crimes. The study is investigating whether probationers who violate conditions of release are more likely than those who do not to commit new crimes during community supervision. 123 Tonry, "Intermediate Sanctions," op. cit., p. 7, and Petersilia, J., Crime Control Rationale for Reinvesting in Community Corrections, Task Force Report from the American Society of Criminology to Attorney General Janet Reno, April 1995. Petersilia notes that two-fifths of persons clearly needing drug treatment are under the supervision of the criminal justice system as probationers or parolees and that the Institute of Medicine "concludes that the justice system is one of the most important gateways to treatment delivery and we should be using it more effectively." 124 Corrothers, H.G., "Draft Executive Summary: Intermediate Sanctions: Developing an Intermediate Punishment System Model." 125 Cowles, E.L., T.C. Castellano, and L.A. Gransky, "Boot Camp Drug Treatment and Aftercare Intervention: An Evaluation Review," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, July 1995. 126 Ibid. 127 Bourque, B.B., et al., "Boot Camps for Juvenile Offenders: An Evaluation," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, May 1996. 128 MacKenzie, D.L., and C. Souryal, "Final Report: Multisite Evaluation of Shock Incarceration, Executive Summary" (NIJ grant 90- DD-CX-0061, University of Maryland -- College Park). 129 Cronin, R.C., Boot Camps for Adult and Juvenile Offenders: Overview and Update, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, October 1994. 130 Parent, D., J. Byrne, V. Tsarfaty, L. Valade, and J. Esselman, Day Reporting Centers, Vol. 1, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, September 1995:1. 131 Ibid. 132 Ibid., xi-xii, 41. 133 Kraddock, A., "Interim Report: Day Reporting Centers as an Intermediate Sanction: A Process and Impact Evaluation (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-4048, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation). 134 McDonald, D.C., "Managing Prison Health Care and Costs," Issues and Practices, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, May 1995. 135 Wilcock, K., T.M. Hammett, and D. Parent, "Controlling Tuberculosis in Community Corrections," Research in Action, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, May 1995. 136 Marquart, J.W., "Final Report: Assessing Current Prisoner Classification Systems, Legal Environments, and Technological Developments" (NIJ grant 92-IJ-CX-K014, Sam Houston State University). 137 Snell, T., "Women in Prison," BJS Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, March 1994. 138 Morris, S.M., H.J. Steadman, and B.M. Veysey, "Draft Final Report: Mental Health Services in American Jails: A Survey of Innovative Practices," Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1995. See also Rubin, P.N., and S.W. McCampbell, "The Americans With Disabilities Act and Criminal Justice: Mental Disabilities and Corrections," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, September 1995. 139 Rubin and McCampbell, "Mental Disabilities and Corrections," op. cit. 140 Morris, Steadman, and Veysey, "Mental Health Services in American Jails," op. cit. 141 English, K., S. Puller, and L. Jones, "Final Report: Managing Sex Offenders: A Containment Approach" (NIJ grant 92-IJ-CX-K021, Colorado Department of Public Safety). 142 Weiss, D.R., "Interim Report: Smart Gun Technology Project" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-R-021, Sandia National Laboratories). 143 Wise, J.E., "Interim Report: Less-Than-Lethal Weapons Technology and Policy Assessment" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-K007) and "Interim Report: Less-Than-Lethal Weapons Technology and Policy Liability Task Group" (NIJ grant 94-IJ-CX-0008, Burkhalter Associates, Inc.). 144 Edwards, S.M., J. Granfield, and J. Onnen, "Evaluation of Pepper Spray," Research in Brief, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, in press. 145 The complaints filed during the study period focused on allegedly inappropriate behavior, not the use of pepper spray. 146 Scott, S.H., "Interim Report: Less-Than-Lethal Program: Restraining Foam Project" (NIJ grant 92- IJ-R-034, Sandia National Laboratories). 147 Milhous, T., "Interim Report: Test and Evaluation of a Rear Seat Airbag Restraint System" (NIJ grant 95-IJ-CX-A030, U.S. Department of the Navy). 148 Northrup, D., "Interim Report: Trace Evidence Identification: Gunshot Residue Analysis" (NIJ grant 93-IJ-CX-A031, Washington State Patrol). 149 DeForest, P.R., "Interim Report: Gunshot Residue Detection and Interpretation" (NIJ grant 92-IJ-CX-K043, City of New York). 150 Allen, R., "Interim Report: Development of Capillary Electrophoresis for Application in Forensic DNA Testing Procedures" (NIJ grant 93-IJ- CX-0030, University of Virginia). 151 Connors, E., T. Lundregan, N. Miller, and J.T. McEwen, "Final Report: Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence To Establish Innocence After Trial" (NIJ grant OJP-95-215, Institute for Law and Justice). ------------------------------ Part 3 Appendixes: NIJ Awards, Publications, and Partnerships Appendix A NIJ Awards in FY 1995 The National Institute of Justice supports research and evaluation focusing on a number of promising strategies to reduce tension in the type of situations that present special risks to youths. Below are the awards made by the National Institute of Justice in fiscal year 1995 to support research, development, and evaluation. Section 1 lists awards made under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. Section 2 lists extramural research awards made under NIJ's Research Plan, which elaborates six goals that reflect and respond to the Nation's criminal justice concerns. Awards are listed alphabetically within each goal. Section 3 lists intramural research projects conducted by NIJ staff. These awards are listed alphabetically by topic area. Section 4 lists NIJ contracts to support development, dissemination, and general research activities. Awards include grants, interagency agreements and cooperative agreements, contracts, and fellowships. The list includes awards that were made in fiscal year 1995 as supplements to projects begun earlier. Information includes award number, project title, name of grantee or contractor, name of principal investigator, dollar amount for the award, and a brief description. The dollar figure is for 1995 only; it does not represent the cumulative value of the project. Section 1 1994 Crime Act Awards Boot Camps 96-SC-LX-0001 Correctional Boot Camps for Juveniles: A Proposal for a Multisite Study University of Maryland -- College Park Doris MacKenzie $398,322 This national study of 27 boot camps for juveniles develops indices to measure and compare the conditions of confinement and the environment within boot camps and assesses the outcomes of participants. 96-SC-LX-0002 A National Multisite Impact Evaluation of Existing Private and Public Boot Camp Programs National Council on Crime and Delinquency James Austin $267,757 This project examines six boot camps for adults and four for juveniles to measure how aftercare strategies influence the participant's rate of recidivism, coping skills, changes in socio-economic status, and correctional costs. Community Policing 95-IJ-CX-0042 Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Police Family Group Conferencing Project Community Service Foundation, Inc. Theodore Wachtel $246,551 This project evaluates the effectiveness of family group conferencing, an innovative community policing technique that involves victims, offenders, and their families and friends in addressing moderately serious juvenile crimes. 95-IJ-CX-0081 Building Effective Strategies for Community Policing State University of New York, Sponsored Programs Administration Raymond Hunt $110,008 This project supports the collaboration between a university team and the Buffalo, New York, Police Department to help define, clarify, develop, and deploy its vision and strategies for community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0092 Citizen Involvement in Community Policing Institute for Social Analysis Royer F. Cook $233,508 This evaluation focuses on police-citizen interaction and community policing in four cities where the national impact evaluation of Operation Weed and Seed is being conducted. 95-IJ-CX-0079 Collaboration Between Abt Associates and the Hartford Police Department Abt Associates, Inc. Thomas Rich $124,790 This evaluation examines an innovative joint police-community program in Hartford, Connecticut, that directly addresses a key aspect of the 1994 Crime Act: developing and implementing innovative programs that permit community members to help law enforcement agencies reorient their activities away from reacting to crime and toward preventing crime. 95-IJ-CX-0046 Collaboration Between the Oakland Police Department and the University of California Regents of the University of California -- Berkeley Jerome Skolnick $188,622 This project supports collaboration between the Oakland Police Department and the University of California, Berkeley, to emphasize police accountability to the department itself and to the citizens of Oakland. It will also evaluate the department's move to implement community-oriented policing through decentralization. 95-IJ-CX-0074 Community Policing Activities: Ohio Task Analysis Project University of Cincinnati, Office of Sponsored Programs Lawrence F. Travis $33,779 This study examines whether the job function of police officers, particularly street-level officers, has developed and changed with the adoption of community-oriented policing over the last decade. 95-IJ-CX-0071 Community Policing at the Street Level Michigan State University Stephen D. Mastrofski $1,969,701 This study addresses several aspects of community policing, including how the police and the community interact with each other in a community policing environment, how officers spend their time and use their authority to intervene in citizens' lives, how police control problem citizens, and how law enforcement agencies obtain cooperation between the police and the public. 95-IJ-CX-0049 Community Policing in El Centro, California: Strengthening Police-Citizen Cooperation in a Bilingual, Multicultural Community City of El Centro Harold D. Carter $42,119 Working with faculty from San Diego State University, the El Centro Police Department is identifying and testing strategies for improving cooperation and building trust between police and citizens who may not speak the same language or share a common cultural experience. 95-IJ-CX-0067 Consent to Search and Seize University of Missouri -- St. Louis Scott H. Decker $326,554 This project evaluates the St. Louis Firearm Suppression Program, an innovative policing effort to reduce youth firearm possession and violence by obtaining parental consent to search the homes of juveniles suspected of possessing a gun, and also documents the aspects of problem-oriented policing most responsible for successful outcomes. 95-IJ-CX-0045 Council Grove-Kansas State University Law Enforcement Team Project Kansas State University Kay K. Cogley $30,000 This project forms a long-term partnership between law enforcement in the rural community of Council Grove, Kansas, and Kansas State University to provide systematic data on public perception of the area's style of community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0077 Criminology Against Crime: Criminologists and Crime Control for the Indianapolis Police Department City of Indianapolis Donald Christ $75,281 This evaluation examines two key approaches to police accountability. One is the IMPACT program (Indianapolis Model of Police Accountability for Community Problem Solving Targets), a computer-aided management information and evaluation program for community policing. The other is the New York City Police Department's model of weekly crime control strategy meetings, which promotes intensive review of local crime patterns by top police commanders. 95-IJ-CX-0083 Cross-Site Research on Locally Initiated Collaboration Institute for Law and Justice, Inc. J. Thomas McEwen $233,918 This national evaluation conducts cross-site research on local collaborations developed under this program to determine how researcher-police partnerships are formed, how they operate, and what factors lead to success. 95-IJ-CX-0047 Demonstrating a Cost-Effective Approach for Locally Initiated Police Research in Small and Medium-Sized Cities LINC Marcia R. Chaiken $199,721 This project facilitates interaction, via the Internet, among research institutions and police departments in four cities that are geographically distant from each other and from institutions that conduct policing research. The project develops, tests, and evaluates new interactive processes. 95-IJ-CX-0076 Developing and Expanding Problem Solving Partnerships in Jersey City Jersey City Police Department Frank Gajewski $71,090 This project expands the partnership between the Jersey City Police Department and the Center for Crime Prevention Studies at Rutgers University to enhance the department's information management and research capabilities, particularly in the areas of community policing, problem-oriented policing, and crime prevention projects. 95-IJ-CX-0085 Development of the Florida Law Enforcement Research Coalition (FLERC) Florida State University (FSU) Anthony Pate $112,589 The Florida State School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, in collaboration with the FSU College of Social Sciences and relevant law enforcement agencies, has formed the Florida Law Enforcement Research Coalition to identify research and policy needs of the law enforcement community and promote working relationships between practitioners and researchers. 95-IJ-CX-0053 DI-LEARN: Downstate Illinois Law Enforcement Research Network (Phase I) Southern Illinois University James Garofolo $72,857 This award supports a network of small police agencies, sheriffs' departments, and researchers from Southern Illinois University to identify and prioritize the agencies' research needs as they relate to community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0055 Educating the Public About Police: The Lima Public Service Announcement Project University of Cincinnati, Office of Sponsored Programs Mitchell Chamlin $44,518 This evaluation examines the ability of four educational public service announcements on police-citizen interaction to affect police-citizen outcomes. 95-IJ-CX-0052 Enhancing Dissemination of Technological Innovation Indiana University -- Bloomington Alexander Weiss $47,212 This project examines patterns of information sharing among 600 State, county, and municipal law enforcement agencies to illustrate the nature and frequency of communication, the factors that influence these patterns, and the possibility that a group of law enforcement agencies serves as a clearinghouses for the dissemination of information. 95-IJ-CX-0057 Establishing a Research Partnership Between the Omaha Police Department and the University of Nebraska at Omaha University of Nebraska -- Omaha Vincent Webb $132,564 This project builds on an ongoing collaborative research partnership in which Omaha Police Department professionals and university researchers identify the department's research needs, develop a community policing-related research agenda, carry out the agenda, and assess its impact on the department and the community. 95-IJ-CX-0041 Evaluating Community Policing in Public Housing Temple University Jack R. Greene $351,491 This evaluation assesses the implementation of a community policing strategy by the Philadelphia Housing Authority and its resident police agency across six public housing developments in Philadelphia that are linked by a common thoroughfare. 95-IJ-CX-0090 Evaluation of Community Policing in Tempe, Arizona Institute for Law and Justice, Inc. J. Thomas McEwen $249,098 This continuing evaluation considers how a police department changes, adapts, and sustains community policing over time in efforts that encompass the entire city. 95-IJ-CX-0068 An Evaluation of Community Policing in Two Medium-Sized Cities University of Illinois -- Chicago Dennis P. Rosenbaum $675,554 This evaluation assesses two types of initiatives: long-term organizational efforts to implement community policing strategies on a citywide basis and new, multiagency efforts to reduce violence and fear in and around local schools. 95-IJ-CX-0051 Evaluation of Community Policing Project Hagerstown Department of Police Dale J. Jones $42,180 This project, conducted by researchers from Shippensburg University in Pennsylvania, assesses the implementation of the Hagerstown, Maryland, Police Department's community policing program, which was designed to reduce fear of crime and improve the quality of life for residents and merchants in two neighborhoods. 95-IJ-CX-0070 An Evaluation of the Dallas Police Department's Interactive Community Policing Program University of Texas -- Arlington Charles H. Mindel $254,671 This evaluation examines the implementation of an Interactive Community Policing Model (ICPM) in Dallas, Texas; codifies and measures the ICPM; develops a replicable implementation technology; and assesses the effects of the ICPM on the community and the police department. 95-IJ-CX-0078 Everyday Perceptions of Disorder, Self-Protection Against Crime, and Community Policing Regents of the University of California -- Los Angeles Jack Katz $246,765 This ethnographic study of five contrasting neighborhoods in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles describes the differences among the residents in their perceptions of disorder and fear of crime, personal strategies for avoiding risk, and definitions of community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0091 Examining the Transformation to Community Policing: Organizational Development Characteristics and Issues Institute for Law and Justice, Inc. Edward F. Connors $263,764 This evaluation examines the critical elements involved in making a successful transition from a traditional law enforcement agency to a community policing organization. 95-IJ-CX-0101 Facilitating Organizational Change: Shaping Philosophies Through Individual and Organizational Evaluations University of South Carolina Geoffrey P. Alpert $199,975 These evaluations assess officers' and departmental efforts, using input that focuses on the processes of policing in the community and the consequences of the actions taken by officers. 95-IJ-CX-0050 Fighting Disorder Within the Law American Alliance for Rights and Responsibilities Roger L. Conner $152,647 This project is producing case studies of cities that have faced lawsuits related to street-level disorder. The case studies will provide practical and timely guidance to police and others for development of policies that minimize the chances for lawsuits. 95-IJ-CX-0093 Forming a Research Partnership: Lansing Police Department and Michigan State University City of Lansing Richard Cook $49,992 This project links the Lansing Police Department and the School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University to conduct a process analysis of the implementation of a team approach to policing and to analyze the informational and technology needs of officers. 95-IJ-CX-0060 Implementing Community Policing in Los Angeles: A Partnership Between the LAPD, UCLA, and USC Training Research Corporation Edward Smith $223,180 This project establishes a partnership between the Los Angeles Police Department and the city's two largest research universities to test whether the implementation of community policing can be accelerated by feeding data at strategic points in the organization and whether such a partnership can be a catalyst in transforming a large and complex police agency. 95-IJ-CX-0080 Increasing the Effectiveness of Rural Police Departments Alfred University William Hall $18,840 Alfred University and two neighboring villages in New York State are conducting a field study to determine how the two police departments can more effectively and efficiently provide services to their communities by using community policing strategies and sharing programs and resources. 95-IJ-CX-0065 Integrating Community Policing into the San Diego Regional Law Enforcement Training Center Curriculum San Diego Police Department Donna Warlick $249,130 This project enables the San Diego Police Department to analyze the Training Center curriculum, develop modifications that incorporate community policing and problem solving as a common theme, train instructors in the modifications, and evaluate the outcome. 95-IJ-CX-0061 Joint Police and Social Services Response to Abused Elders Victim Services Robert Davis $270,340 This project in New York City uses an experimental design to evaluate a joint community policing and social service response to elder abuse. 95-IJ-CX-0062 A Joint Research Partnership for Community-Oriented Policing St. Louis University James F. Gilsinan $146,616 This collaborative project between the university and the St. Louis Metropolitan Police Department examines the commitment of first-line supervisors to a community-oriented policing approach and develops criteria that will recognize and reward activity that flows from this approach. 95-IJ-CX-0100 Locally Initiated Research and Evaluation Project Salem State College Resource Center Edward LeClair $100,000 This project supports the Salem State College Criminal Justice Institute in Massachusetts and three local police departments in developing an innovative research and evaluation collaboration to measure the effectiveness of community policing programs at the local level. 95-IJ-CX-0088 Locally Initiated Research on Community Policing: Process and Outcomes Evaluation Jefferson County, West Virginia, Coalition on Substance Abuse Diane C. McCoy $73,549 This project evaluates the COPS FAST/COPS AHEAD project in three collaborating police forces toward the development of a research and analysis agenda for the future. 95-IJ-CX-0103 Measuring and Analyzing Crime Patterns and Trends With the Geographic Information System (GIS) John Jay College of Criminal Justice -- Research Foundation of the City University of New York (CUNY) John Mollenkopf $174,787 This collaborative project between the New York Police Department and two CUNY research centers improves analysis and evaluation techniques to increase understanding of crime incidence and control dynamics. 95-IJ-CX-0059 Organizational Change and Leadership: Conditions and Strategies for Creating a Culture of Community Policing President and Fellows of Harvard Mark Moore $296,978 This evaluation determines what internal and external organizational conditions and what leadership and management techniques facilitate change, developing hypotheses to be tested in future research. 95-IJ-CX-0056 Partners for Prevention? Obstacles to Police-Community Cooperation in Problem Solving Northwestern University Wesley G. Skogan $338,429 This project evaluates Chicago's community policing effort and the impact of its problem-solving strategies. 95-IJ-CX-0072 A Partnership for Research in Community Policing Strategies in a Rural County and Four Small Cities University of South Alabama Robert Galbraith $52,760 This project demonstrates the mutual value of a research and evaluation and program development-oriented relationship between small and rural law enforcement agencies and a criminal justice faculty from a local urban university. 96-IJ-CX-0006 Police Researcher-Partnership: Building the Infrastructure for Effective Program Evaluation Justice Research and Statistics Association Kellie Dressler $99,542 This collaboration examines the programmatic and research strengths and weaknesses of existing partnerships and assists in developing formal police-researcher partnerships to effectively support police in six departments. 95-IJ-CX-0043 Policing Evaluation Through Academic Research: Creating a Special Policing Analysis Network City of Colorado Springs Teresa Schultz $48,723 This project establishes a research alliance of the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, the Colorado Springs Police Department, and the El Paso County Sheriff's Office to build an interdisciplinary team of researchers and practitioners who can identify and coordinate community policing research within the area. 95-IJ-CX-0075 Policing Local Illicit Gun Markets Carnegie Mellon University Jacqueline Cohen $220,416 This project, a partnership between a local research institution and the Pittsburgh Police, examines the nature of local gun markets, particularly the sources of guns to juveniles, and assesses the effectiveness of law enforcement and investigatory strategies directed against these markets. 95-IJ-CX-0086 Policing on American Indian Reservations President and Fellows of Harvard Francis Hartmann $335,252 This 18-month project works with American Indian tribes to discover what policing strategies are and are not working, why they seem to be working or not, and how tribes and private and public agencies concerned with the welfare of American Indian communities might apply the findings. 95-IJ-CX-0073 Process Evaluation of Title I of the Violent Crime Control Act of 1994 The Urban Institute Jeffrey A. Roth $2,449,416 This project evaluates the progress made and problems encountered through implementation of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) under Title I of the 1994 Crime Act. The evaluation includes site visits to 60 locations and a national survey of 1,800 police executives. 95-IJ-CX-0063 A Proposal To Integrate Objective Performance Evaluation into Community Policing City of Boston James T. Jordan $127,474 This two-stage project seeks to create an effective program for ongoing evaluation of the Boston Police Department's community policing strategy and will conduct two projects to assess the progress of neighborhood policing. 95-IJ-CX-0048 A Research Partnership Between the Lexington Division of Police and Eastern Kentucky University Lexington/Fayette Urban County Government Larry Gaines $67,700 This project establishes a research partnership to support one initial research project; plan a second one; and establish a system within the Division of Police for soliciting, prioritizing, and supervising subsequent research projects. The second project will evaluate the police department's move toward more geographically based deployment in support of community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0064 Scanning for Innovation National League of Cities Institute Renee Winsky $273,451 This project identifies innovative and exemplary community policing programs, practices, and procedures by means of a nationwide competitive Award for Excellence in Policing program. 95-IJ-CX-0044 Stage Model of Community Policing Seattle Police Department Dan W. Fleissner $100,291 This project investigates the "stage concept" of the change process for a police department implementing community policing, examines the process in several cities to determine its validity, and identifies the components of community policing and their evolution as the agencies progress through the stages. 95-IJ-CX-0097 Targeting Cycles of Domestic Violence: Assessment, Review, and Recommendation Seattle Police Department Dan W. Fleissner $108,972 This project gathers information about the cycle of violence to further develop more effective measures of domestic violence. 95-IJ-CX-0084 University-Police Department Collaboration in Philadelphia Temple University Jack R. Greene $50,688 This collaborative project between the Center for Public Policy at Temple University and the Philadelphia Police Department assesses the department's research and information needs in the management of its continuing shift from traditional to community-based policing. 95-IJ-CX-0087 The Two-Stage Model of Change: Madison Police Department Police Executive Research Forum Mary Ann Wycoff $391,464 This evaluation examines and documents the Madison, Wisconsin, Police Department's implementation of the second stage of a two-stage model of the transition to community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0082 Using Technology To Enhance Police Problem Solving Board of Trustees of University of Illinois -- Champaign John Gardiner $196,392 This project automates the analysis of large crime data sets to help police identify patterns in the data that point to the activities of career criminals and to achieve a form of problem solving appropriate to problem-oriented policing. Violence Against Women 95-IJ-CX-0054 Beyond Arrest: The Portland, Oregon, Experiment Portland State University Annette Jolin $199,994 This study explores whether arrest, in the context of a coordinated domestic violence response system, has a greater deterrent effect than arrest by itself and evaluates the effectiveness of the Portland Police Bureau's Domestic Violence Reduction Unit. 95-WT-NX-0004 Evaluation of a Coordinated Response to Domestic Violence Applied Research Associates Stan Orchowsky $114,412 This evaluation assesses the effectiveness of the Alexandria, Virginia, Domestic Violence Intervention Project, which combines a mandatory arrest policy with a no-drop prosecution strategy and court-mandated treatment for batterers in addition to providing services for battered women, such as emergency shelter, counseling, and court advocacy. 95-WT-NX-0002 An Exploration of the Experience and Needs of Former Intimate Stalking Victims West Chester University Mary P. Brewster $74,940 This research identifies the evolution and patterns of stalking behavior; the psychological, financial, physical, and behavioral effects of stalking on its victims; the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of legal mechanisms for protecting victims; the various needs of stalking victims; the factors related to subsequent violence in stalking cases; and other related issues. 95-WT-NX-0001 Extent and Nature of Sexual Victimization of College Women University of Cincinnati Bonnie Fisher $224,719 This project collects data from a national sample of women enrolled at postsecondary institutions in the United States, using structured telephone interviews to obtain incident and victimization data. 95-IJ-R025 Family Violence and the Courts: Exploring Expert Testimony on Battered Women The Women Judges' Fund for Justice Esther Ochsman $18,791 This award supplements a State Justice Institute grant, "Family Violence and the Courts: Exploring Expert Testimony on Battered Women," in order to support additional work required to prepare the Report on Battered Women's Syndrome mandated by the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. 95-WT-NX-0006 Models of Community Coordination in Response to Partner Violence State University of New York -- Albany, Research Foundation Alissa Worden $104,289 This evaluation complements an ongoing analysis of the impact of legislated reforms in family violence cases in New York State and develops a typology of community coordination models. 95-WT-NX-0005 National Evaluation of the Violence Against Women Act Grants The Urban Institute Martha Burt $346,003 This 2-year evaluation examines the activities funded through grants to combat violent crimes against women under Chapter 2 of the Violence Against Women Act. The grant program aims to develop and strengthen effective law enforcement, prosecution, and victim services in cases involving crimes against women. 95-IJ-CX-0006 Panel on Research on Violence Against Women National Academy of Sciences Elaine Smialek $298,742 This 12-month project, jointly sponsored with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, uses an appointed panel of experts from relevant disciplines and practitioner communities to examine empirical and clinical research reports and data bases on violence against women, identify gaps in the knowledge base, and develop a research agenda on violence against women aimed at improving policy and practice. 95-WT-NX-0003 Prosecution Strategies in Domestic Violence University of Iowa Carolyn Hartley $99,080 This study examines the prosecution of domestic violence-related cases to identify those strategies associated with a successful outcome of conviction on the original charge. 95-IJ-CX-0009 Public Access to Information Concerning the Whereabouts of Abuse Victims National Criminal Justice Association Gwen A. Holden $50,000 Under a mandate of the 1994 Crime Act, a group of experts is studying and will report on the means by which abusive spouses obtain information concerning the addresses or locations of estranged or former spouses and provide recommendations on potentially effective and enforceable regulation of access to domestic violence victims' address information. ------------------------------ Section 2 Extramural Research Goal 1: Reduce Violent Crime 95-IJ-CX-0001 Assessment of Family Violence Interventions National Academy of Sciences Rosemary Chalk $150,000 A committee of experts is developing a synthesis of the relevant research and expert opinions regarding the strengths and limitations of existing program interventions in the area of family violence. 93-IJ-CX-0031 Childhood Victimization and Adult Violence: Using Multiple Measures To Better Estimate Offending State University of New York -- Albany, Research Foundation Cathy Spatz Widom $49,364 This award, which extends funding for research on childhood victimization and adult violence, focuses on the use of multiple measures to better estimate offending. 93-IJ-CX-0033 Children of Battered Women Education Development Center, Inc. Debra Whitcomb $126,912 This study clarifies our understanding of the needs of children of battered women. Data will be gathered on mothers who apply for temporary restraining orders over a 6-month period. A sample of cases that proceed to criminal prosecution will be followed through telephone contacts with the mothers. 95-IJ-CX-0102 The Effects of Court Dispositions on the Likelihood of Rearrest for Domestic Violence Arrestees in Cincinnati University of Cincinnati John Wooldredge $54,738 This project assesses the effectiveness of pretrial detention, conviction, or jail sentences for preventing and delaying further domestic violence for suspects arrested for misdemeanor domestic violence in Cincinnati, Ohio. 94-IJ-CX-0058 Evaluation of G.R.E.A.T. University of Nebraska -- Omaha Finn-Aage Esbensen $264,990 This project supports the longitudinal evaluation of the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) Program, a school-based gang prevention curriculum taught by law enforcement officers. 95-IJ-CX-0017 Felons Who Attempt To Purchase Guns: A Study of Prior and Subsequent Criminal Activity Sam Houston State University Kenneth Adams $43,064 This study investigates the efficacy of criminal history background checks in screening applicants for gun purchases in Florida. 95-IJ-CX-0106 Handgun Intervention Program Evaluation The Urban Institute Jeffrey A. Roth $241,710 This study evaluates the Handgun Intervention Program in the 36th District Court in Detroit, Michigan. 95-IJ-R037 Joint DHHS-NIJ Domestic Violence Studies The Urban Institute Martha R. Burt $50,000 This project supports two studies to be conducted through the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Department of Health and Human Services: "Domestic Violence Policy and Program Development" and "Child Welfare and Domestic Violence -- An Exploratory Study." 95-IJ-CX-0114 Patterns and Trends in Youth-Perpetrated Homicides in the United States Research Triangle Institute Robert Flewelling $115,791 The project examines patterns and trends in youth-perpetrated homicides since 1980 and explores social and demographic determinants of the recent increases in youth homicide. 93-IJ-CX-0023 Prevalence and Consequences of Child Victimization: The National Survey of Adolescents Medical University of South Carolina Benjamin Saunders $450,000 This project continues funding for a study of the prevalence, nature, and effects of child victimization and the relationship between child victimization and the development and continuation later in life of drug abuse and other emotional and behavioral problems. It will be conducted through a review and synthesis of the literature and a nationally representative telephone survey of adolescents and their parents. A series of reports will provide recommendations for policies, programs, and future research. 93-IJ-CX-0017 Private Ownership of Firearms in the United States: A National Study Police Foundation Earl Hamilton $43,000 Under this supplement to a national telephone survey of private firearms ownership and use, a representative sample of 2,600 households was interviewed about gun-related issues, including acquisition and disposal of guns, previous victimization and arrest histories, demographic characteristics, and other related factors. This project analyzes the data and reports the findings. 93-IJ-CX-K005 Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods President and Fellows of Harvard Felton J. Earls $2,053,937 This longitudinal study, which is being sponsored jointly with the MacArthur Foundation, is in the first year of data collection and will collect data over 8 years in order to study the development of delinquent and criminal behavior patterns of 11,000 subjects from birth to age 32 in 80 neighborhood areas in the metropolitan area of Chicago. 95-IJ-CX-0019 Reducing Firearms Crime and Injuries: Interdicting Guns and Bullets Indianapolis, Office of the Mayor Lawrence Sherman $250,000 This project tests several strategies to encourage gun safety and to reduce gun carrying and gun violence. 95-IJ-CX-0094 Supplemental Survey of Gun Owners President and Fellows of Harvard David Kennedy $48,928 This project conducts a national random-digit-dial survey of 3,200 gun owners to supplement findings on self-defense produced in surveys by the Harvard Injury Control Center and NIJ. 95-IJ-CX-0027 Understanding, Preventing, and Controlling Domestic Violence University of Massachusetts, Lowell Research Foundation Eve Buzawa $151,593 This study uses indepth interviews with batterers and victims and official records to examine the effect of judicial intervention on batterers sentenced in the Quincy, Massachusetts, District Court. 95-IJ-R019 When Domestic Violence and Custody Disputes Coincide National Center for State Courts Susan Keilitz $70,556 This project, funded by NIJ and the State Justice Institute and conducted by the National Center for State Courts, supports an examination of effective court responses to domestic violence cases involving custody disputes. Goal 2: Reduce Drug- and Alcohol-Related Crime 94-IJ-R051 Drug Court Intervention Project of the D.C. Superior Court D.C. Pretrial Services Agency John A. Carver $990,000 This award supports the implementation and evaluation of a drug court in the District of Columbia, with funds from the Center for Substance Abuse Treatment and the Department of Health and Human Services. 93-IJ-CX-0041 Evaluation of Two Models for Treating Sentenced Federal Drug Offenders National Council on Crime and Delinquency James Austin $11,402 This project supports a process and experimental design impact evaluation of two drug treatment models for Federal offenders under community supervision. 95-IJ-CX-0028 Monitoring the Decline in the Crack Epidemic With Data From the DUF Program John Jay College of Criminal Justice -- Research Foundation of the City University of New York Andrew Golub $46,905 This project analyzes trends in the use of crack cocaine based on data from the DUF program. 95-IJ-CX-0095 A Study To Assess the Feasibility of Conducting a Demonstration of In-Prison Therapeutic Communities and Shock Incarceration Abt Associates, Inc. Dale Parent $150,000 This feasibility study identifies the most effective correctional responses for dealing with drug-involved offenders, with a focus on the utility of boot camps and therapeutic communities for reducing drug use and drug dependence among offenders. The Drug Use Forecasting Program The Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) program sites perform drug tests of persons arrested and brought to booking facilities. The test findings indicate levels of drug use, determine what drugs are used in specific jurisdictions, and track changes in drug use patterns. 94-IJ-R005 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Atlanta Atlanta Office of Corrections Tom Peacock $37,190 95-IJ-R005 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Birmingham Birmingham, TASC Foster Cook $66,840 95-IJ-R020 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Chicago TASC of Illinois, Inc. Melody Heaps $58,032 95-IJ-R010 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Denver Colorado Division of Criminal Justice Kim English $81,269 94-IJ-R020 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Detroit Michigan State University Tim Bynum $66,135 95-IJ-R008 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Houston Houston-Galveston Area Council Brett Arkinson $61,824 95-IJ-R013 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Indianapolis Marion County Justice Agency Cindy Mowry $42,924 94-IJ-R043 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Los Angeles Los Angeles County, Inc., Public Health Foundation Karen Garcia $114,430 94-IJ-R013 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Manhattan New York City Department of Mental Health, Retardation, and Alcoholism Services Patricia Thomas $79,768 95-IJ-R023 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Miami Metro Dade County Dan Taylor $39,699 94-IJ-R014 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- New Orleans Orleans Parish Criminal Sheriffs Office William C. Hunter $32,820 93-IJ-R023 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Omaha Office of Public Safety, Police Division Frederick Power $28,466 95-IJ-R011 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Phoenix TASC of Maricopa County, Arizona Barbara Zugor $45,585 94-IJ-R019 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Portland TASC of Oregon, Inc. Linda Tyon $59,484 95-IJ-R009 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- San Antonio San Antonio Metropolitan Health District Sergio Soto $70,104 95-IJ-R012 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- San Diego San Diego Association of Governments Susan Pennell $69,292 89-MU-R025 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- San Diego San Diego Association of Governments Susan Pennell $5,192 94-IJ-R027 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- San Jose Santa Clara County Bureau of Drug Abuse Services Robert Garner $75,313 94-IJ-R045 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri, Metropolitan Police Department Larry Pattison and Scott Decker $68,478 89-IJ-R027 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri, Metropolitan Police Department Scott Decker $22,594 95-IJ-R024 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) -- Washington, DC District of Columbia Pretrial Services Agency Janis Bergin $35,708 95-IJ-R014 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) Program -- Gun Addendum St. Louis, Missouri, Metropolitan Police Department Scott Decker $25,978 This project supports the gathering of information about arrestees' use of guns. 93-IJ-R002 Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) Program -- Statistical Analysis Aspen Systems Corporation Georgette Semick $599,101 This project provides assistance in the following areas: (1) data editing, data entry, preparation of DUF interviews and DUF urine specimen data, and maintenance of DUF data files; (2) data analyses and preparation of quarterly and annual reports and monographs; and (3) periodic training of project personnel at the local DUF sites and technical assistance to other localities. 94-IJ-R009 Laboratory Analysis of Urine Specimens National Center for Forensic Science Lionel Menard $281,473 This project screens urine specimens collected from adult and juvenile sampled arrestees for 10 drugs and confirms the specimens testing positive for amphetamines with gas chromatography. Goal 3: Reduce the Consequences of Crime 95-MU-MU-0026 Intervention for Elementary School Children Exposed to Community Violence Howard University Hope Hill $170,658 This project, cofunded with the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, supports an initial evaluation of a culturally appropriate, multilevel, after-school intervention with 240 African-American children that is intended to reduce the children's likelihood of experiencing negative psychological effects and engaging in violent behavior. 93-IJ-CX-0022 Longitudinal Effects of Crime and Signs of Disorder Temple University Ralph Taylor $27,051 This project supplements a longitudinal study of the effects of crime and signs of disorder on communities; specifically, community and business leaders will be interviewed about how their neighborhoods have changed in the past 20 years and the possible role of crime and disorder in the process. 95-IJ-CX-0025 Population-Based Monitoring of Firearm Violence: Georgia United Notification System Emory University Arthur L. Kellermann $148,848 This award creates a data surveillance system that integrates information on nonfatal gunshot injuries from police reports and health care providers and emergency rooms in the Atlanta area for use by police investigators. 95-IJ-R032 Reducing Injuries to Women in Domestic Assaults Rutgers University Jeffrey Fagan $25,000 This supplement to a grant awarded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention supports additional analysis of data on injuries to women who are victims of domestic assault. 95-IJ-CX-0116 The Reporting and Non-reporting of Racially Motivated Hate Crimes in Robeson County, North Carolina: A Case Study North Carolina Central University Alice J. Mayer $19,126 This project explores the factors that influence the reporting and nonreporting of racially motivated hate crimes in Robeson County, North Carolina. 95-IJ-CX-0022 Victims of Nonfatal Gunshot Wounds Howard University Vernetta D. Young $25,048 This study provides specific information on the demographic characteristics of the victims of nonfatal gunshot wounds and the nature of circumstances surrounding these incidents and assesses alternative solutions and preventive measures to reduce nonfatal gunshot injuries. Goal 4: Improve the Effectiveness of Crime Prevention Programs 95-IJ-CX-0024 Analysis of the Juvenile Curfew in New Orleans University of New Orleans Ralph E. Thayer $135,594 Using mapping techniques, this study determines the impact of the New Orleans curfew on both delinquency and violent crimes committed by juveniles against juveniles. 94-IJ-CX-0048 Collection of Baseline Impact Data for the Weed and Seed Program Institute for Social Analysis Janice Roehl $108,880 This award allows the Institute for Social Analysis, with the assistance of the Police Foundation and locally recruited interviewers, to continue collecting baseline data for a national impact evaluation of eight Weed and Seed sites. 95-IJ-CX-0030 Controlling Fraud in Small Business Health Benefits Programs St. John's University Robert H. Tillman $35,504 This project endeavors to develop estimates of the magnitude of fraudulent health care provider schemes, the effectiveness of the law enforcement response, the legislative and regulatory gaps that facilitate these kinds of fraud, and other factors. 95-IJ-CX-0038 The Effects of Juvenile Curfews on Violent Crime Sam Houston State University Kenneth Adams $49,559 This project investigates whether curfews reduce violent and nonviolent crime and increase school attendance. 94-IJ-CX-0065 Evaluation of the Bureau of Justice Assistance's Comprehensive Communities Program Botec Analysis Corporation Ann Marie Rocheleau $182,762 This supplement enlarges a process evaluation of the Comprehensive Communities Program to include an additional six sites, at a reduced level of study, and increases the intensity of study of six sites currently being evaluated. 95-IJ-CX-0011 An Evaluation of the Chicago Housing Authority's Anti-Drug Initiative Abt Associates, Inc. Susan Popkin $297,122 This project examines the overall impact of the Chicago Housing Authority's anti-drug initiative on crime rates and residents' perceptions of safety, their lives, and their willingness to participate in organized anticrime efforts. 95-DD-BX-0134 Impact Evaluation of the Weed and Seed Program Abt Associates, Inc. Joan Mullen $405,000 This 24-month study evaluates eight Weed and Seed sites (using eight comparison sites) and the National Performance Review Laboratory as it is applied to Weed and Seed. 95-IJ-CX-0036 Systemic Neighborhood Organization and Control Oklahoma Division of Criminal Justice Services Robert J. Bursik $47,523 This research examines how the success of urban neighborhood organizations in confronting crime and delinquency is affected by the larger urban context in which these neighborhoods are located. 95-IJ-CX-0037 Vermont Incident-Based Crime Analysis and Mapping: Developing Research Capabilities for Problem-Oriented Policing Vermont Center for Justice Research William Clements $48,781 This project analyzes data on offender and offense relationships, using new technologies in geographic information systems to analyze data spatially and visually. Goal 5: Improve Law Enforcement and the Criminal Justice System Corrections 94-IJ-CX-0014 Classification for Recidivism Risk: A Hazard Model Approach Richard L. Linster, NIJ Research Fellow $102,800 This project develops and implements a management information system-based classification system for adult Florida probationers; replicates work conducted in Florida on a population of juvenile probationers in San Diego; and analyzes the failure on parole of two cohorts of releasees from the California Youth Authority. 95-IJ-CX-0099 Estimating the Costs and Benefits of Mandatory Sentencing Laws Rand Corporation Peter Greenwood $174,043 This project helps public officials and the general public better understand the potential costs and benefits of "three strikes" and other such mandatory sentencing laws. It also helps administrators plan for the implementation of such laws through the development of a computer simulation model to estimate how aggregate crime and criminal justice processing rates will be affected by various versions of these laws. 95-IJ-CX-0108 Evaluating the Impact of Alternative Placement: Long-Term Followup of Adjudicated Delinquents University of Illinois -- Chicago Michael Fendrich $50,000 The study explores the relative impacts of alternative placements on the criminal recidivism of adjudicated delinquents. 94-IJ-CX-K005 HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis in Correctional Facilities Abt Associates, Inc. Ted Hammett $8,677 This project, sponsored by NIJ and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, provides an update on the impact of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis in correctional facilities, including juvenile facilities. 94-IJ-CX-0010 The Impact of the Evaluation of the Opportunity to Succeed (OPTS) Program The Urban Institute Shellie Rossman $260,971 This project continues a 4-year evaluation that includes a process evaluation, an impact evaluation, and a cost-benefit analysis of the program, which provides an array of services to probationers and parolees leaving prisons and jails and returning to their community. 92-IJ-CX-K019 Iowa State Evaluation Capacity Building Iowa Department of Human Rights Richard G. Moore $25,000 This award continues and expands a project to construct a risk assessment scale for juveniles and to develop outcome measures for juvenile justice treatment programs in the State of Iowa. 95-DD-BX-K009 National Evaluation of Correctional Options Programs National Council on Crime and Delinquency James Austin $300,000 This project expands the scope of a national process evaluation of correctional options demonstration sites funded in 1992 and 1993 to include a detailed evaluation of five additional sites and allows researchers to disseminate information on the national evaluation requirement for corrections options at two planning conferences. 95-IJ-CX-0098 Profiling the Needs of the California Female Youth Authority Population California State University -- Fresno Barbara Owen $46,410 This applied research project develops a protocol to assess the needs of the female youth population nationwide. 95-IJ-CX-0032 Test, Modify, and Retest: An Agenda for Evaluating Intensive Supervision and Probation (ISP) Council of State Governments, American Probation and Parole Association Timothy H. Matthews $249,133 This project seeks to evaluate a prototypical ISP model to promote behavioral change in offenders by focusing on the provision of intense services rather than exclusive surveillance and incapacitive measures. 95-IJ-CX-0026 Three Strikes and You're Out: A Comparative Study of Two States' New Legislation National Council on Crime and Delinquency James F. Austin $175,000 This research project analyzes how three-strikes-and-you're-out laws in California and other States are being implemented by the courts and the consequences for changing the criminal justice system charging practices, pre-trial detention, court delay, court disposition, and prison population growth. 95-IJ-CX-0016 Toward Common Sense in Sentencing Thomas J. Quinn, NIJ Visiting Fellow $154,500 This project examines the emerging interest in restorative justice from the perspective of State and local criminal justice officials and policymakers. Policing 95-IJ-CX-0104 An Analysis of Police Use of Force University of South Carolina Geoffrey Alpert $99,849 This project reanalyzes and compares the data sets on police use of force from the Metro-Dade, Florida, and Eugene and Springfield, Oregon, police departments. The data will be analyzed to determine the relationships among the amount of resistance met by police and the amount of force used to control suspects. 95-IJ-CX-0015 Citizen Feedback on Individual Officer Performance Lincoln Police Department Terrence K. Sherrill $20,440 This project evaluates the police department's Quality Service Audit using an ongoing systematic survey of citizens involved in contacts with the police; feedback on citizen satisfaction will be provided monthly to the individual officers involved in the contacts. 93-IJ-CX-K011 Community Policing in Lansing, Michigan Michigan State University David Carter $34,977 This project continues to research and analyze community policing and related activities, such as community policing training and programmatic problem-solving initiatives. 95-IJ-CX-0039 Controlling Crime and Disorder "Hot Spots" Using Civil Remedies University of Cincinnati Lorraine A. Green $199,345 This 18-month study assesses the Oakland, California, Police Department's Beat Health Unit Initiative that uses civil remedies for drug and crime abatement, neighborhood improvement, and cooling down of "hot spots" in order to inform policymakers of the types of communities most likely to provide successful environments for such initiatives. 95-IJ-CX-0058 A Cross-Cultural Study of Police Corruption University of Delaware Carl B. Klockars $46, 755 This study surveys police officers and administrators in U.S. police agencies about corruption and compares the results with those obtained in a survey completed by a researcher in Croatia. The ensuing report will be the first systematic cross-cultural study of police corruption. 95-IJ-CX-0020 Federal Funding of Police Overtime: A Utilization Study State University of New York -- Albany David H. Bayley $124,961 This project examines the use of Federal funds by municipal police departments and multi-jurisdictional drug task forces for police overtime to determine whether and how such funds can be used more effectively to support strategic innovation, especially in the direction of community policing. 95-IJ-CX-0113 Identification of Work and Family Services for Law Enforcement Personnel Police Research Education Project Elizabeth McGee $103,023 This project identifies, from the officer's perspective, current work and family stress factors and available programs to assist officers as well as survey a national sample of law enforcement agencies to determine the existence and success of programs offered to address work and family problems in law enforcement. 95-IJ-CX-0013 Impact of Police Order Maintenance on Fear, Crime, and Urban Decay Northeastern University George Kelling $58,079 This project examines the impact of police order maintenance activities on fear, crime, and urban decay and police organizational changes involved in departments' implementation of community policing and organizes a workshop on innovative law enforcement practices related to order maintenance. 95-IJ-CX-0023 Investigating the Scope of Measurement Error in Calls-for-Service as a Measure of Crime University of Houston David A. Klinger $25,000 This project compares initial police dispatch and observers' descriptions of calls for police service to yield a variety of error counts. Calls will be grouped by neighborhood and police department to examine whether (and how) errors bias neighborhood and departmental calls-for-service crime counts as well as whether errors in aerial data are correlated with other neighborhood features. 95-IJ-CX-0089 Law Enforcement Family Support Survey and Focus Groups Center for Criminal Justice Studies Elizabeth Langston $78,956 This study provides information on the extent and nature of police stress as identified by focus groups of police officers and spouses. Variables to be assessed through surveys with police officers are police divorces, the effects of shift work on family life, the social network of police officers and police families, the use of employee assistance programs, and/or social patterns. 95-IJ-CX-0117 A Partnership To Evaluate the Lincoln Police Department's Quality Service Audit University of Nebraska -- Omaha Julie Horney $20,692 Under this project, a criminal justice Ph.D. student is working with the Lincoln Police Department to design and implement an evaluation of the department's Quality Service Audit, an ongoing systematic survey of citizens involved in contacts with the police. 95-IJ-CX-0109 Police Officer Experience in Interpersonal Policing: The Crisis Negotiation Example University of Michigan Jane Sachs $34,411 This project examines police crisis negotiations in an effort to gain a more complete understanding of the effects of interpersonal policing methods. 95-IJ-CX-0021 Problem-Oriented Policing Case Studies Ronald V. Clarke, NIJ Visiting Fellow $43,014 This project identifies and evaluates a small number of promising problem-oriented policing interventions. 95-IJ-CX-0110 The Role of Local Law Enforcement in Controlling Illegal Immigration and Other Transnational Crimes Georgetown University William McDonald, NIJ Visiting Fellow $113,716 This project studies State and local law enforcement efforts against transnational crime, including illegal immigration, street crime committed by illegal immigrants, organized crime initiated outside U.S. borders, and immigrant involvement in the drug trade. 95-IJ-CX-0107 State and Local Participatory Evaluation of the Safe Neighborhoods Program Connecticut Statistical Analysis Center Dolly Reed $50,000 This project supports the evaluation of the Connecticut Safe Neighborhoods Program, which provides funds to establish and administer police substations in high crime areas. 95-IJ-CX-0066 Use of Force by and Against Police Joint Centers for Justice Studies Joel Garner $351,573 This project builds upon prior NIJ-funded research on police use of force in Phoenix, Arizona, by surveying arresting officers in four cities regarding the nature of force used and the nature and circumstances of the arrest. In addition, a subsample of arrested suspects will be interviewed to measure the consistency of officer and suspect assessments of the amount of force used. Prosecution/Adjudication 95-IJ-CX-0034 Development of a Program Plan for Improving Alien Adjudication and Pretrial Release Vera Institute of Justice, Inc. Christopher E. Stone $125,795 The purpose of this project is to design, implement, and assess a demonstration program that will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of adjudication and pretrial release procedures for aliens. 95-IJ-CX-0105 Domestic Violence Cases: What Happens When Courts Are Faced With Uncooperative Victims? American Bar Association Barbara Smith $45,557 This project studies the effects of changes in policy to accept more domestic violence cases and examines what happens when cases are prosecuted with uncooperative or hostile victims. 95-IJ-CX-0096 Prosecution in the Community: A Study of Emergent Strategies President and Fellows of Harvard Mark Moore $335,439 This study documents and develops profiles of prosecutorial strategies in State prosecutors' offices in five cities; develops hypotheses to explain how and what, if any, changes are occurring in prosecutorial strategies; assesses what community prosecution model is being implemented and whether it was implemented independently by prosecutors or in response to community policing efforts; explores the congruence between operational strategies of police and prosecutors; and determines indicators to measure community prosecution's effectiveness in dealing with specific problems. 95-IJ-CX-0004 Prosecutorial Response to Bias-Motivated Crimes American Prosecutors Research Institute Don Rebovich $49,947 This 12-month study gathers information on the prosecution of bias-motivated offenses through a mail survey administered to approximately 800 District Attorney's offices nationwide. 95-IJ-CX-0112 Rethinking Organizational Strategies and Criminal Justice Performance Measures: The Case of Community Prosecution Barbara Boland, NIJ Visiting Fellow $294,530 This project develops performance measures for the Portland, Oregon, model of community prosecution; assesses the applicability of this performance measure's methodology to Manhattan, New York's community prosecution model; and continues to document the characteristics of community prosecution strategies nationwide. Systemwide Issues 95-IJ-CX-0010 Assessing the Feasibility of Creating Centralized State Data Bases on the Incidence of Sexual and Domestic Violence Justice Research and Statistics Association Joan C. Weiss $62,268 A group of experts will study and report on how to create centralized State data bases on the incidence of sexual and domestic violence. 95-IJ-CX-0029 The Self-Evaluating Justice Organization: Building Local Evaluation Capacity Michael G. Maxfield, NIJ Visiting Fellow $70,279 This project examines the role of evaluation as a problem-solving management tool in criminal justice agencies and will produce a series of publications focusing on the role of evaluation and how it can be carried out at the local level with limited resources and expertise. 95-IJ-CX-0003 Study of Alternative Structures for the U.S. Trustee Program National Academy of Public Administrators Jennifer Hughes $245,565 This study performs a thorough and detailed review of the U.S. Trustee Program to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the current program structure and evaluates the feasibility of improving the program by implementing an alternative administrative and management structure that relies on greater private- sector involvement. Goal 6: Develop New Technology for Law Enforcement and the Criminal Justice System 95-IJ-CX-A040 Concealed Weapon Technology Support and Establishment of National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center/Northeast Region U.S. Department of the Air Force, Rome Laboratory John A. Ritz $200,000 This project provides NIJ with technical expertise for the oversight of the NIJ-funded concealed weapon technologies and establishes the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center/Northeast Region. 95-IJ-CX-A027 Detection and Classification of Concealed Weapons Using Magnetic Gradient Measurement Techniques U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Jonathan Nadler $235,000 This project develops a method of detecting and classifying concealed weapons using magnetic gradient measurement techniques, which will provide quantitative estimates of weapons size, location, and other characteristics. 95-IJ-CX-K007 Detection of Concealed Weapons and Other Contraband Using Passive Millimeter Wave Imaging Millitech Corporation Stephen A. Bohrer $1,430,000 This project produces a series of proof-of-principal and prototype passive millimeter wave camera systems for the remote detection of concealed weapons and contraband hidden under people's clothing. 95-IJ-CX-0014 Develop a Rapid, Immobilized Probe Assay for Detection of mtDNA Sequence Variation Roche Molecular System, Inc. Rebecca L. Reynolds $94,458 This project is developing a simple and rapid method for typing mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation using polymerase chain reaction amplification. 95-IJ-CX-0018 Development of a Dynamic Mugbook Using Multimedia Computers Southeastern Louisiana University Hunter A. McAllister $34,596 This project involves development and testing of a dynamic mugbook procedure that uses multimedia computer technology to allow eyewitnesses to consider an individual mugshot in the context of other cues about the person pictured such as his or her voice or gait. 95-IJ-CX-0002 DNA Training and Technical Assistance American Prosecutors Research Institute Cabell C. Cropper $200,000 This project establishes a DNA Legal Assistance Unit to assist prosecutors involved in DNA cases and provide training and technical assistance regarding both legal and scientific issues surrounding the use of DNA analysis. 95-IJ-CX-0007 Estimation of Population Structure Parameters North Carolina State University Bruce S. Weir $25,000 This project estimates the standardized variance of alleles frequencies over a group of subpopulations, a sample of the FBI's worldwide compendium of DNA typing data, and a geographic sampling of Roche parentage lab data from North Carolina counties in order to estimate parameters that describe the extent of population substructuring and to show how substructuring will affect estimates of DNA profile frequencies. 95-IJ-CX-0031 Infrastructure and Governance Planning for the National Law Enforcement Center Network Pymatuning Group, Inc. Ruth M. Davis $61,703 This project supports the development of infrastructure and governance planning for the National Law Enforcement Center Network. 95-IJ-CX-K010 Installation and Evaluation of an Intercity Automatic Vehicle Location System Rockwell International Corporation John T. Neustadter $150,000 This award installs and evaluates an intercity (multijurisdictional) automatic vehicle location system in four police departments in the South Bay region of Los Angeles County, California, using selected vehicles from each department. 95-IJ-CX-0008 Isolation and Characterization of Population-Specific Alleles University of Pittsburgh Mark D. Shriver $99,677 This project supports development of a data base for estimating the ethnic affiliation of unknown suspects by typing a random sample of Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic residents from Pennsylvania for the identified markers. 95-IJ-CX-K001 Law Enforcement, Technology Transfer, and Policing Assessment SEASKATE, Inc. E. A. Burkhalter, Jr. $251,851 This grant enables a panel of experts to identify law enforcement technologies that are most promising in the short and long term that should be the focus of development or adaptation. 95-IJ-CX-K006 Law Enforcement, Technology Transfer, and Policing Liability Assessment SEASKATE, Inc. E. A. Burkhalter, Jr. $187,134 This project focuses on assessing the legal liability that might arise from the deployment of certain technologies by law enforcement and corrections being considered for research and development by NIJ's less-than-lethal program. 95-IJ-CX-K003 Less-Than-Lethal Technology Assessment and Transfer Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc. Donald Vincent $244,629 The project designs, establishes, and implements a process for assisting in the transfer of less-than-lethal technologies into policing and correctional operations. 95-IJ-CX-0012 Linguistic Methods for Determining Document Authorship Carole Elizabeth Chaski, NIJ Visiting Fellow $67,505 This project develops, demonstrates, and tests a technique that uses the language of a document to provide evidence of the author's identity. 92-IJ-CX-K040 Mitochondrial DNA Variation in North American Populations of Four Ethnic Groups Pennsylvania State University Mark Stoneking $159,159 This project continues a study to type mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in five geographical subpopulations of four groups (Caucasians, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians) in order to determine the extent and forensic significance of mtDNA subpopulation heterogeneity, ascertain whether any significant association exists between mtDNA types and genotypes at other loci used forensically, and increase the size of the mtDNA data base. 95-IJ-CX-K011 Net Deployment Module for a Snare Net Projectile Foster-Miller, Inc. Arnis Mangolds $199,274 This project develops a nonlethal net deployment module to enhance the safety and practicality of an existing projectile-delivered antipersonnel snare net system. The net is designed to entangle and incapacitate fleeing offenders or in a stand-off situation those armed with a hand-held weapon (not a gun). 95-IJ-CX-A017 NIJ Office of Law Enforcement Technical Commercialization at the National Technology Transfer Center National Aeronautics and Space Administration Jonathan Root $1,500,000 This project develops and operates an NIJ Office of Law Enforcement Technology Commercialization at the National Technology Transfer Center, which will provide effective resources for technology transfer and commercialization. 95-IJ-CX-K004 Operation of Rocky Mountain Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center University of Denver -- Colorado Seminary Deborah Bradford $249,696 This award establishes the Rocky Mountain Regional Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center to assist in the transfer of command, control, and communication technologies, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, that meet the needs and requirements of the criminal justice system. 95-IJ-CX-A039 Provide Support to the Border Research and Technology Center U.S. Attorney, Southern District of California Alan D. Bersin $25,000 This project identifies short-term technology needs and requirements and provides a report on the technology requirements needed to enhance U.S. agencies' border activities. 95-IJ-CX-K009 Support for the NIJ Surplus Property Program Ultimate Enterprise Limited Michael C. Simpson $74,978 This project assists the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center to develop a plan and procedures for identifying and transferring select U.S. Department of Defense surplus property to State and local law enforcement agencies. 95-IJ-CX-K005 Support to the Border Research and Technology Center The Aerospace Corporation Robert Pentz $249,997 This award establishes a Border Research and Technology Center with support from the Western Regional Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center. The Center will provide forensic analysis support using advanced techniques in image enhancement and surveillance and other technical information and products to law enforcement agencies and transfer the information to NIJ's National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center for national data base purposes. 95-IJ-CX-A016 Technical Requirements for Implementation of TIN and Technical Support U.S. Department of the Navy Joseph Knoefel $1,150,000 This project provides resources, advice, and recommendations on the technical requirements for implementation required in the first phase of construction of the hub TIN in the Regional Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center. 94-IJ-CX-A004 Technology Assessment Program U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the Office of Law Enforcement Standards Kathleen M. Higgins $800,000 This project continues NIJ Technology Assessment Program efforts, such as the development of DNA polymerase chain reaction standards, armor-piercing ammunition testing, trauma plate testing, less-than-lethal technologies technical support, integrated systems digital network standards, and ballistic studies in support of the body armor program, and updates the law enforcement standards for concealable body armor used by the military in situations other than war. 95-IJ-CX-K002 Technology Assessment Program Information Center Aspen Systems Corporation David Shinton $947,334 This project maintains the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center, which serves as the main clearinghouse for information dissemination and provides product information data bases and functions. 95-IJ-CX-K008 Test and Evaluation of a Handgun Detection System Based on Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation Raytheon Company Charles Ciany $273,370 This project supports development of a concealed weapons detection system based on low-frequency electromagnetic radiation. 95-IJ-CX-A030 Test and Evaluation of a Rear Seat Air Bag Restraint System U.S. Department of the Navy Tom Milhous $25,200 This project tests and evaluates a rear seat air bag restraint system, designed to control violent subjects being transported in the rear seat of a patrol vehicle. ------------------------------ Section 3 Intramural Research Criminal Behavior Analysis of Juvenile Drug Use Trends and Patterns Jack Riley and Angela Moore Parmley Using data from Drug Use Forecasting sites, this research analyzes drug use among juveniles. The work examines prevalence, initiation into drug use, living arrangements, and education and compares juvenile self-reports of drug use with test results. Additionally, trends in the DUF data will be compared with trends reported in the Monitoring the Future program. Arrestees in Emergency Rooms: Linking DUF and DAWN Data James Trudeau and Thomas E. Feucht This research will help adjust national prevalence estimates that have attempted to incorporate data from the Drug Use Forecasting program, which gathers data on drug use among arrestees, and the Drug Abuse Warning Network, which tracks drug abuse-related incidents in emergency rooms related to drug abuse. Count Models of Postrelease Arrest of Youthful Offenders Pamela K. Lattimore and Richard L. Linster Multiple rearrests are a frequent occurrence among parolees from the California Youth Authority. This research focuses on the expected number of arrests per unit street time as a function of prior criminal histories, criminal justice environment variables, and various personal and family descriptors. Crack and Powder Cocaine Use Among Arrestees: Trend Analysis of the DUF Data Christy A. Visher and Thomas E. Feucht This research will analyze 12 years of data on crack and powder cocaine use to determine whether there has been a significant shift in patterns of use and, if so, whether these changes are associated with specific demographic groups. Geometry of Crime: Feasibility Study Robert Langworthy and Nancy La Vigne This study is developing a model about where crime is committed and how the location relates to the offender. For example, it will address such questions as: Are arrested persons charged with activities in spaces they routinely use or is the space exceptional? Housing Circumstances of Arrestees in 23 U.S. Cities Thomas E. Feucht and Jordan Leiter By analyzing Drug Use Forecasting data about offenses, circumstances of arrest, drug use, and housing situation at the time of the arrest, researchers are developing a portrait of the living situations of arrestees in 23 major cities. Mobility of DUF Arrestees Robert Langworthy and Nancy La Vigne This study is analyzing ZIP code data from arrestees in Drug Use Forecasting samples to determine the concentrations of arrestees, concentrations of offenses, and the relationships between where offenders live and where they commit crimes. Patterns and Correlates of Assaults on Police Robert Kaminski and Robert Langworthy This project examines assaults on police officers in 77 cities from 1980 to 1994 and analyzes a variety of police organizational factors, sociodemographic characteristics of cities, and officer and suspect attributes. Rearrest Among DUF Arrestees: Prior Arrests and Current Drug Use Thomas E. Feucht and Gabrielle M. Kyle This project analyzes self-report data on prior criminal activity among arrestees in the Drug Use Forecasting program and compares the relationship between drug-test results and prior criminal activity. Risk of Death Among Serious Young Offenders Pamela K. Lattimore and Richard L. Linster This research focuses on the death of serious, chronic offenders who are parolees of the California Youth Authority. The research tests the hypothesis that because of their criminal lifestyle, these young people are at abnormally high risk of death. Role of Drugs in Crime: Arrestees Under the Influence and in Need of Drugs Jack Riley and Thomas E. Feucht Using new Drug Use Forecasting data, this research is analyzing the relationship between the crime and the offender's drug use and "need" for drugs or alcohol at the time the offense was allegedly committed. Special attention is paid to patterns that may emerge from subsets of arrestees (for example, male and female arrestees). Target Selection in Personal Fraud Richard Titus This project builds on earlier research about fraud to identify which factors increase the likelihood that an individual will be subject to a fraud attempt, how offenders select potential victims, and how policymakers can use this information in prevention programs. Information from fraud investigators and incarcerated fraud offenders will be used to design a questionnaire for a national survey. Use of Methamphetamines Among Arrestees: An Analysis of the DUF Data Thomas E. Feucht and Gabrielle M. Kyle The Drug Use Forecasting data show increasing methamphetamine use among arrestees in several data collection sites. This research is determining the demographic, criminal history, and geographical characteristics of methamphetamine users. Criminal Justice System Assessment of Sentencing Outcomes for Drug Offenders in State Courts Jordan Leiter and Angela Moore Parmley This research compares sentencing outcomes for black and white drug offenders convicted in State courts in Virginia and Minnesota. Both the likelihood of being incarcerated and the length of incarceration are being studied. Automated Risk Classification for Probationers Pamela K. Lattimore and Richard L. Linster Using data from the Florida Department of Corrections management information system, this project is developing a model-based classification system for probation populations. The intent is to develop a quick and inexpensive method for classifying regular probation populations. Drug Assay Cutoff Levels for Marijuana: A Comparison of 100- and 50-ng/ml Cutoffs for Drug Testing Arrestees Christy A. Visher and Thomas E. Feucht During 1995, the Drug Use Forecasting program conducted tests for marijuana at both 100 ng/ml and 50 ng/ml. This research is examining the empirical consequences of changing the cutoff level for a positive test result for marijuana from 100 ng/ml to 50 ng/ml for screening assays such as the widely used EMIT¦. Identifying Optimal Risk Classification Schemes for Probationers Pamela K. Lattimore This project, which continues NIJ work with the Florida Department of Corrections, is developing methods to establish appropriate cutoff points for assignment to maximum, medium, or minimum probation supervision levels. Prison Drug Use: Results of Drug Testing in a State Prison System Thomas E. Feucht and Gabrielle M. Kyle In cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Correction, this project is measuring the extent of drug use in prisons and assessing the impact of specific drug control strategies, including drug-detection dogs, electronic drug-detection equipment, and randomized drug testing. Violence in U.S. Cities: Homicide Trends in Eight Cities Pamela K. Lattimore This examination of trends in murder and violent crime rates in large U.S. cities entails extensive study in eight cities, plus two pilot cities, where data will be collected and key policymakers will be interviewed. The research is analyzing the ways in which changes in local factors are associated with changes in homicide rates. Violence in U.S. Cities: Homicide Trends in Large Cities Pamela K. Lattimore and Jordan Leiter This project is examining homicide rates between 1980 and 1994 in U.S. cities with populations of more than 200,000. Data are being collected to investigate the relationships between homicide trends and changes in criminal justice system activities, socioeconomic factors, and criminal activities (such as guns, gangs, and drugs). Crime Control and Prevention Crime Prevention Through Design: The Case of the Washington, D.C., Metro Nancy La Vigne This research analyzes crime data from the Washington, D.C., Metro transit police, municipalities served by Metro, and other subway systems to test two questions: (1) Is the Washington, D.C., Metro safer than expected given what is known about crime rates on other subway systems and those outside the systems? (2) Are Metro's low crime rates explained by the design, management, and maintenance of the system? Effects of Mandatory Sentences and Sentencing Guidelines on Local Drug Markets Jack Riley This research examines the impact of mandatory sentences and sentencing guidelines on the structure of, and participation in, drug markets. The research measures how stricter sentencing for drug offenses has affected the age distribution of offenders and the size of transactions. Optimal Use of Multiple Methods of Drug Testing Pamela K. Lattimore A variety of technologies can now detect illegal drug use, and for each technique (for example, urinalysis or hair analysis) specimen collection involves different costs and response times. This project will develop methods for determining when and how to use different types of drug tests. Perceptions of Police Use of Force Robert Langworthy and Stephanie Bourque Police have a unique license to use force in pursuit of legitimate State ends but are prohibited from using excessive force. This research explores definitions of excessive force from several perspectives: public, legal, occupational, government agency, and mass media. Relationship Between Crime and Changes in Public Housing Jordan Leiter This research addresses the ways in which current initiatives to restructure and reorganize public housing affect crime rates. Repeat Victimization in Residential Burglary Richard Titus This research will use segment-level analysis of burglary in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) to determine whether one housing unit in the segment is disproportionately victimized during the 3 years the segment is in the NCVS sample and in the 6 months following the burglary. Shelter Availability and Murder and Nonnegligent Homicide Rates Bernard Auchter and Stephanie Bourque This research examines the possible relationship between the availability of shelter beds for victims of domestic abuse and the rate of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter. For example, when fewer beds are available in shelters for battered women, are more women murdered by their domestic partners? Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Homicide in Washington State Eric Jefferis and Robert Langworthy This project will examine homicide patterns using data collected for Washington's Homicide Investigation and Tracking System (HITS). The HITS system contains statewide information on homicides (solved and unsolved) from 1981 through 1995. The project will provide a microlevel spatial and temporal analysis of homicide trends and patterns. Studies in Community Preparedness for Domestic Terrorism and Politically Motivated Violence Jack Riley This study analyzes approaches to terrorism preparedness in up to seven communities. Factors being studied include the types and range of strategies communities develop to address local terrorism; how strategies vary with threat type; and how communities operationalize, review, and evaluate strategies. ------------------------------ Section 4 Development, Dissemination, and Research Support 92-IJ-CX-K044 Annual Review of Justice Research Castine Research Corporation Michael H. Tonry $155,899 A new volume will be developed for the publication series Crime and Justice: Annual Review of Justice Research, focusing on the most significant and policy-relevant information from criminal justice research and evaluation for use by criminal justice policymakers, professionals, and researchers. 95-IJ-CX-0035 Crime and Justice Volume on Youth Violence Castine Research Corporation Michael H. Tonry $173,303 This project will develop a new volume for the publication series Crime and Justice: Annual Review of Justice Research focusing on youth violence. 95-IJ-CX-A033 Criminal Justice Research Training Program University of Maryland -- College Park Charles Wellford $19,656 This program expands the current NIJ fellows and graduate student fellows program, which provides graduate students the opportunity to gain experience in criminal justice research and research administration. 95-IJ-CX-C005 Data Resources Program of the National Institute of Justice University of Michigan Chris Dunn $307,552 This project provides the necessary personnel, facilities, equipment, materials, and services in support of the Institute's Data Resources Program. 95-IJ-CX-0033 Developing an Internet Model for Cross-National Information Sharing and Dissemination Sergey S. Chapkey, NIJ Visiting Fellow $52,298 This project further develops the Institute's cross-national information sharing and dissemination capabilities. 94-IJ-CX-C005 Development and Production of Annual Reports and Other Materials Cygnus Corporation Anne Pritchett $119,269 This project supports NIJ in developing annual reports and other materials that report on research findings, evaluation results, and/or program activities that benefit State and local criminal justice systems. OJP-94-C-006 National Criminal Justice Reference Service Aspen Systems Corporation Richard S. Rosenthal $3,315,307 This clearinghouse serves as a central repository for criminal justice research literature, provides an infrastructure to support both shared and individual program needs of all Office of Justice Programs' components, and provides management and other support for the Violence Against Women Conference. 95-IJ-CX-A047 Partnership Against Violence Network Gopher Server U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agriculture Library John D. Kane $29,957 The primary objective of this project is to establish an Internet-based information management platform upon which Federal agencies can provide access to information about programs, reports, technical assistance, and other materials related to issues of violence and youth at risk. 94-MU-CX-C008 Professional Conference Series Institute for Law and Justice, Inc. Edward F. Connors $1,130,000 Conferences, workshops, planning and development meetings, and field program support will be provided focusing on criminal justice activities. 94-MU-CX-C007 Research Applications Contract Abt Associates, Inc. Joan Mullen $750,000 Under this program, critical research findings and important advances in practice are disseminated to the appropriate policy and professional audience(s) to improve crime-control policies and practices. 91-MU-CX-C008 Technical Assistance and Support KOBA Associates, Inc. Sampson Annan $1,586,478 Support and assistance are provided to NIJ in criminological and criminal justice research and development, dissemination, evaluation, and training activities. ------------------------------ Appendix B NIJ Publications Communicating research findings to criminal justice policymakers is a key function of the National Institute of Justice. Findings are reported in several ways: (1) summaries that highlight significant results from research evaluations and technology and program development; (2) full reports that contain all the details of the research; (3) articles in the National Institute of Justice Journal, published three times a year; and (4) full data sets from NIJ's Data Resources Program, which makes data from sponsored research available for downloading via the World Wide Web. NIJ also publishes documents that help the field use NIJ services better (for example, resource guides, directories, and catalogs of publications). The publications listed in this appendix were published between October 1994 and April 1996, and are free and available electronically from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). The Research Previews are also available via fax by calling 1-800-851-3420 and selecting option 1 to order documents, then selecting option 2 to receive fax-on-demand documents. The Research in Progress videotapes are $19.00 (U.S.) and $24.00 (Canada and other countries). To order materials, call NCJRS at 1-800-851-3420 (outside the United States, call 301-251-5500). The NCJRS World Wide Web (WWW) site The address for the NCJRS WWW site is: http://www.ncjrs.org o For the NIJ data collections, connect to the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data (NACJD) home page using the following address: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/nacjd/home.html NIJ publishes several different kinds of publications: o Research in Action: Overviews of specific research topics or demonstration programs. o Research in Brief: Summaries of recent NIJ research and evaluation findings. o Research Reports: Comprehensive reports of NIJ-sponsored research and development projects. o Research in Progress Videotapes: 60-minute lecture and question-and-answer segment presented by a well-known scholar and accompanied by a Research Preview summarizing the salient points of the discussion. o Research Previews: Two-page fact sheets on research and evaluation findings and activities (previously called Updates). o Issues and Practices: Reports presenting program options and issues for criminal justice managers and administrators. o Program Focus: Highlights of specific State and local criminal justice programs. Community Policing Community Policing in Chicago: Fact or Fiction? (Research in Progress Videotape). Skogan, W. NCJ 153273. Crime and Policing in Rural and Small-Town America (Research Report). Weisheit, R.A., Wells, L.E. 109 pp. NCJ 154354. Evaluating Patrol Officer Performance Under Community Policing: The Houston Experience (Research Report). Oettmeier, T.N., Wycoff, M.A. 30 pp. NCJ 142462. On the Front Lines: A Directory of Community Policing Programs in America's Cities. U.S. Conference of Mayors. 50 pp. NCJ 147037. Rural Crime and Rural Policing (Research in Action). Falcone, D.N., Weisheit, R.A., Wells, L.E. 16 pp. NCJ 150223. Computers and Technology The Americans With Disabilities Act: Emergency Response Systems and Telecommunications Devices for the Deaf (Research in Action). Dunne, T., Rubin, P.N. 8 pp. NCJ 151177. Data Resources of the National Institute of Justice, 7th edition (Research Report). National Archive of Criminal Justice Data. 328 pp. NCJ 150037. Data Resources of the National Institute of Justice, 8th edition (Research Report). National Archive of Criminal Justice Data. 356 pp. NCJ 156714. Justice on the Net: The National Institute of Justice Promotes Internet Services (Research in Action). Lively, G.M., Reardon, J.A. 8 pp. NCJ 158838. Corrections Alternative Sanctions in Germany: An Overview of Germany's Sentencing Practices (Research Preview). Pfeiffer, C. 4 pp. FS 000137. The Americans With Disabilities Act and Criminal Justice: Mental Disabilities and Corrections (Research in Action). Rubin, P.N., McCampbell, S.W. 8 pp. NCJ 155061. The Americans With Disabilities Act and Criminal Justice: Providing Inmate Services (Research in Action). McCampbell, S.W., Rubin, P.N. 8 pp. NCJ 148139. Boot Camp Drug Treatment and Aftercare Intervention: An Evaluation Review (Research in Brief). Cowles, E.L., Castellano, T.C., with the assistance of Gransky, L.A. 16 pp. NCJ 155062. Boot Camp Drug Treatment and Aftercare Intervention: An Evaluation Review (Research Report). Cowles, E.L., Castellano, T.C., with the assistance of Gransky, L.A. 186 pp. NCJ 153918. Boot Camps for Adult and Juvenile Offenders: Overview and Update (Research Report). Cronin, R., Han, M. 74 pp. NCJ 149175. Boot Camps for Juvenile Offenders: An Implementation Evaluation of Three Demonstration Programs (Research Report). Bourque, B.B., Cronin, R.C., Pearson, F.R., Felker, D.B., Han, M., Hill, S.M. 116 pp. NCJ 157316. Controlling Tuberculosis in Community Corrections (Research in Action). Wilcock, K., Hammett, T.M., Parent, D.G. 12 pp. NCJ 153211. Correctional Boot Camps: A Tough Intermediate Sanction (Research Report). MacKenzie, D.L., Hebert, E., eds. 308 pp. NCJ 157639. A Corrections-Based Continuum of Effective Drug Abuse Treatment (Research in Progress Videotape). Inciardi, J. NCJ 152692. Day Reporting Centers, Volume 1 (Research Report). Parent, D., Byrne, J., Tsarfaty, V., Valade, L., Esselman, J. 45 pp. NCJ 155060. Day Reporting Centers, Volume 2 (Research Report). Parent, D., Byrne, J., Tsarfaty, V., Valade, L., Esselman, J. 161 pp. NCJ 155505. An Inventory of Aftercare Provisions for 52 Boot Camp Programs (Research Report). Bourque, B.B., Han, M., Hill, S.M. 142 pp. NCJ 157104. Managing Prison Health Care and Costs (Issues and Practices). McDonald, D.C. 137 pp. NCJ 152768. Multisite Evaluation of Shock Incarceration (Research Report). MacKenzie, D.L., Souryal, C. 46 pp. NCJ 150062. NIJ Survey of Jail Administrators (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000087. NIJ Survey of Probation and Parole Agency Directors (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000086. NIJ Survey of Wardens and State Commissioners of Corrections (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000085. 1994 Update: HIV/AIDS and STD's in Correctional Facilities (Research Report). Hammett, T.M., Widom, R., Epstein, J., Gross, M., Sifre, S., Enos, T. 188 pp. NCJ 156832. Researchers Evaluate Eight Shock Incarceration Programs (Update). Mackenzie, D., Souryal, C. 2 pp. FS 000070. Resolution of Prison Riots (Research in Brief). Useem, B., Camp, C.G., Dugan, R. NCJ 155283. Shock Incarceration in New York (Program Focus). Aziz, D.W., Clark, C.L., MacKenzie, D.L. 12 pp. NCJ 148410. Tuberculosis in Correctional Facilities (Issues and Practices). Hammett, T.M., Harrold, L. 56 pp. NCJ 143399. Work in American Prisons: Joint Ventures With the Private Sector (Program Focus). Sexton, G.E. 16 pp. NCJ 156215. Courts Benefits and Costs of California's New Mandatory Sentencing Law (Research in Progress Videotape). Greenwood, P.W. NCJ 152236. The Drug Court Movement (Update). Goldkamp, J. 2 pp. FS 000093. Environmental Crime Prosecution: Results of a National Survey (Research in Brief). Rebovich, D., Nixon, R.T. 12 pp. NCJ 150310. In New York City, a "Community Court" and a New Legal Culture (Program Focus). Anderson, D.C. 12 pp. NCJ 158613. Justice and Treatment Innovation: The Drug Court Movement (Issues and Practices). Goldkamp, J. 38 pp. NCJ 149260. Keeping Incarcerated Mothers and Their Daughters Together: Girl Scouts Beyond Bars (Program Focus). Moses, M.C. 12 pp. NCJ 156217. NIJ Survey of Judges, Trial Court Administrators, and State Court Administrators (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000090. NIJ Survey of Prosecutors (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000089. Prosecuting Child Physical Abuse Cases: A Case Study in San Diego (Research in Brief). Smith, B.E. 12 pp. NCJ 152978. Prosecuting Child Physical Abuse Cases: Lessons Learned From the San Diego Experience (Update). Smith, B.E. 2 pp. FS 000078. Prosecuting Gangs: A National Assessment (Research in Brief). Johnson, C., Webster, B., Connors, E. 12 pp. NCJ 151785. Sentencing Policy and Crime Rates in Reunified Germany (Research in Progress Videotape). Pfeiffer, C. NCJ 152237. State Laws on Prosecutors' and Judges' Use of Juvenile Records (Research in Brief). Miller, N. 17 pp. NCJ 155506. State Laws on Prosecutors' and Judges' Use of Juvenile Records (Update). Miller, N. 2 pp. FS 000074. Using Civil Remedies for Criminal Behavior: Rationale, Case Studies, and Constitutional Issues (Issues and Practices). Finn, P., Hylton, M.O. 80 pp. NCJ 151757. Crime Prevention Beacons of Hope: New York City's School-Based Community Centers (Program Focus). McGillis, D. 16 pp. NCJ 157667. Breaking the Cycle: Predicting and Preventing Crime (Research Report). Earls, F.J., Reiss, A.J. 66 pp. NCJ 140541. Building the Peace: The Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (Program Focus). DeJong, W. 16 pp. NCJ 149549. Childhood Victimization and Risk for Alcohol and Drug Arrests (Research Preview). Ireland, T., Widom, C.S. 2 pp. FS 000108. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Parking Facilities (Research in Brief). Smith, M.S. 12 pp. NCJ 157310. Evaluation of Boys and Girls Clubs in Public Housing (Research Preview). Pope, C.E. 2 pp. FS 000100. The Expanding Role of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Premises Liability (Research in Brief). Gordon, C.L., Brill, W. 8 pp. NCJ 157309. Helping To Prevent Child Abuse and Future Criminal Consequences: Hawaii Healthy Start (Program Focus). Earle, R.B. 12 pp. NCJ 156216. The Kansas City Gun Experiment (Research in Brief). Rogan, D.P., Shaw, J.W., Sherman, L.W. 12 pp. NCJ 150855. The Kansas City Gun Experiment (Update). Rogan, D.P., Shaw, J.W., Sherman, L.W. 2 pp. FS 000072. Physical Environment and Crime (Research Report). Taylor, R.B., Harrell, A.V. 32 pp. NCJ 157311. The Use of Computerized Mapping in Crime Control and Prevention Programs (Research in Action). Rich, T.F. 12 pp. NCJ 155182. Criminal Justice System The Americans With Disabilities Act: Emergency Response Systems and Telecommunication Devices for the Deaf (Research in Action). Dunne, T., Rubin, P.N. 8 pp. NCJ 151177. The Americans With Disabilities Act: Hiring New Employees (Research in Action). Rubin, P.N. 8 pp. NCJ 147479. Civil Rights and Criminal Justice: Employment Discrimination Overview (Research in Action). Rubin, P.N. 8 pp. NCJ 154278. Civil Rights and Criminal Justice: Primer on Sexual Harassment (Research in Action). Rubin, P.N. 6 pp. NCJ 156663. Directory of Criminal Justice Information Sources, 9th edition (Resource Directory). Hutchinson, J. 166 pp. NCJ 144767. National Assessment Program: 1994 Survey Results (Research in Brief). McEwen, T. 12 pp. NCJ 153517. National Assessment Program: 1994 Survey Results (Research Report). McEwen, T. 84 pp. NCJ 150856. 25 Years of Criminal Justice Research: The National Institute of Justice. 70 pp. NCJ 151287. Criminology and Research Certification of DNA and Other Forensic Specialists (Update). Tontarski, R.E., Jr. 2 pp. FS 000095. Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence To Establish Innocence After Trial (Research Report). Connors, E., Lundregan, T., Miller, N., McEwen, T. 85 pp. NCJ 161258. Crime in a Birth Cohort: A Replication in the People's Republic of China (Research in Progress Videotape). Wolfgang, M. NCJ 153271. New Reagents for Development of Latent Fingerprints (Update). Jouille, M.M., et al. 2 pp. FS 000097. Using Civil Remedies for Criminal Behavior: Rationale, Case Studies, and Constitutional Issues (Issues and Practices). Finn, P., O'Brien, H.M. 80 pp. NCJ 151757. Drug Testing Drug Use Forecasting, 1994 Annual Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees. 47 pp. NCJ 157644. Drug Use Forecasting, 1994 Annual Report on Juvenile Arrestees/Detainees: Drugs and Crime in America's Cities (Research in Brief). 20 pp. NCJ 150709. Hair Analysis as a Drug Detector (Research in Brief). Mieckowski, T. 4 pp. NCJ 156434. Impact of Systemwide Drug Testing in Multnomah County, Oregon (Update). Harrell, A., Adams, W., Gouvis, C. 2 pp. FS 000083. 1994 Drug Use Forecasting, Annual Report on Adult Arrestees: Drugs and Crime in America's Cities (Research in Brief). 32 pp. NCJ 147411. Drugs and Crime Case Management With Drug-Involved Arrestees (Research Preview). Gross, M., Rhodes, W. 2 pp. FS 000980. Case Studies of Community Anti-Drug Efforts (Research in Brief). Weingart, S.N., Hartmann, F.X., Osborne, D. 16 pp. NCJ 149316. Community Responses to Drug Abuse: A Program Evaluation (Research Report). Bennett, S.F., Lindsay, B., Rosenbaum, D.P. 40 pp. NCJ 145945. The D.A.R.E. Program: A Review of Prevalence, User Satisfaction, and Effectiveness (Update). Ringwalt, C.L., et al. 2 pp. FS 000068. Do Drugs. Do Time: An Evaluation of the Maricopa County Demand Reduction Program (Research in Brief). Hepburn, J.R., Johnston, C.W., Rodgers, S. 8 pp. NCJ 149016. Drug-Abusing Women Offenders: Results of a National Survey (Research in Brief). Anglin, M.D., Prendergast, M.L., Wellisch, J. 20 pp. NCJ 149261. Drug Control Strategies in San Diego: Impact on the Offender (Research Report). Curtis, C., Pennell, S. 200 pp. NCJ 145946. Drugs and Crime in Public Housing: A Three-City Analysis (Research Report). Dunworth, T., Saiger, A. 104 pp. NCJ 145329. The Effectiveness of Treatment for Drug Abusers Under Criminal Justice Supervision (Research Report). Lipton, D.S. 64 pp. NCJ 157642. The Manhattan District Attorney's Narcotics Eviction Program (Program Focus). Finn, P. 12 pp. NCJ 153146. Predicting Pretrial Misconduct With Drug Tests of Arrestees: Evidence From Six Sites (Research in Brief). Rhodes, W., Hyatt, R., Scheiman, P. 6 pp. NCJ 157108. Street Gangs and Drug Sales in Two Suburban Cities (Research in Brief). Maxson, C.L. 16 pp. NCJ 155185. Law Enforcement Community Policing in Chicago: Year Two (Research Preview). Skogan, W. 2 pp. FS 000105. Community Policing Strategies (Research Preview). Wycoff, M.A. 2 pp. FS 000126. Controlling Police Use of Excessive Force: The Role of the Police Psychologist (Research in Brief). Scrivner, E.M. 6 pp. NCJ 150063. Gang Crime and Law Enforcement Record Keeping (Research in Brief). Ball, R.A., Curry, G.D. 12 pp. NCJ 148345. Implementation Challenges in Community Policing: Innovative Neighborhood-Oriented Policing in Eight Cities (Research in Brief). Sadd, S., Grinc, R.M. 20 pp. NCJ 157932. Law Enforcement Response to Environmental Crime (Issues and Practices). Epstein, J., Hammett, T.M. 80 pp. NCJ 151399. Managing Innovation in Policing: The Untapped Potential of the Middle Manager (Research Preview). Geller, W. 2 pp. FS 000130. Managing Mentally Ill Offenders in the Community: Milwaukee's Community Support Program (Program Focus). McDonald, D.C., Teitelbaum, M. 12 pp. NCJ 145330. NIJ Survey of Police Chiefs and Sheriffs (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000088. Policing Drug Hot Spots (Research Preview). Sherman, L.W. 2 pp. FS 000128. The Role of Police Psychology in Controlling Excessive Force (Research Report). Scrivner, E.M. 30 pp. NCJ 146206. Rural Crime and Rural Policing (Research in Action). Weisheit, R., Falcone, D.N., Wells, L.E. 16 pp. NCJ 150223. Victims The Criminal Justice and Community Response to Rape (Issues and Practices). Epstein, J., Langenbahn, S. 142 pp. NCJ 148064. The Emotional Effects of Testifying on Sexually Abused Children (Research in Brief). Goodman, G.S., Hoak, S., Runyan, D.K., Whitcomb, D. 8 pp. NCJ 146414. The Extent and Costs of Crime Victimization: A New Look (Research Preview). Miller, T.R., Cohen, M.A., Wiersema, B. 2 pp. FS 000131. Victim and Witness Intimidation: New Developments and Emerging Responses (Research in Action). Healey, K.M. 16 pp. NCJ 156555. Fraud Victimization -- The Extent, the Targets, the Effects (Update). Titus, R. 2 pp. FS 000075. Victim Assistance Programs: Whom They Service, What They Offer (Update). McEwen, T. 2 pp. FS 000084. Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse -- Later Criminal Consequences (Research in Brief). Widom, C.S. 8 pp. NCJ 151525. Weapon-Related Victimization in Selected Inner-City High School Samples (Research Report). McGee, Z.T., Sheley, J.F., Wright, J.D. 20 pp. NCJ 151526. Weapon-Related Victimization in Selected Inner-City High School Samples (Update). McGee, Z.T., Sheley, J.F., Wright, J.D. 2 pp. FS 000073. Violence Arrestees and Guns: Monitoring the Illegal Firearms Market (Research Preview). Decker, S.H., Pennell, S. 4 pp. FS 000104. Building the Peace: The Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (Program Focus). DeJong,W. 15 pp. NCJ 149549. A Coordinated Approach to Reducing Family Violence: Conference Highlights (Research Report). Witwer, M.B., Crawford, C. 38 pp. NCJ 155184. The Criminalization of Domestic Violence: Promises and Limits (Research Report). Fagan, J. 64 pp. NCJ 157641. The Cycle of Violence Revisited (Research Preview). Widom, C.S. 4 pp. FS 000136. The Cycle of Violence Revisited Six Years Later (Research in Progress Videotape). Widom, C.S. NCJ 153272. Evaluation of Family Violence Training Programs (Research Preview). Newmark, L., Harrel, A., Adams, W. 2 pp. FS 000125. Evaluation of Violence Prevention Programs in Middle Schools (Update). Bannister, T. 2 pp. FS 000074. Intervening With High-Risk Youth: Preliminary Findings From the Children-at-Risk Program (Research in Progress Videotape). Harrell, A. NCJ 153270. Monitoring the Illegal Firearms Market (Research in Progress Videotape). Decker, S.H. NCJ 153850. Partner Violence Among Young Adults (Research in Progress Videotape). Moffitt, T. NCJ 154277. PAVNET Online User's Guide. 24 pp. NCJ 152057. PAVNET on WordPerfect 5.1 Diskettes. NCJ 160046. PAVNET on ASCII Diskettes. NCJ 160045. Preventing Interpersonal Violence Among Youth: An Introduction to School, Community, and Mass Media Strategies (Issues and Practices). DeJong, W. 70 pp. NCJ 150484. Preventing Interpersonal Violence Among Youth (Update). DeJong, W. 2 pp. FS 000069. Psychoactive Substances and Violence (Research in Brief). Roth, J.A. 8 pp. NCJ 145534. Questions and Answers in Lethal and Nonlethal Violence: Proceedings of the Second Annual Workshop of the Homicide Research Working Group (Research Report). Block, C.A., Block, R.L. 230 pp. NCJ 147480. Reducing Gun Violence: Community Policing Against Gun Crime (Research in Progress Videotape). Sherman, L.W. NCJ 153730. Reducing Violent Crimes and Intentional Injuries (Research in Action). Roth, J.A., Moore, M.H. 10 pp. NCJ 156089. Solving Youth Violence: Partnerships That Work: National Conference Proceedings, Washington, D.C., August 15-17, 1994 (Research Report). 104 pp. NCJ 154134. State and Local Responses to Terrorism (Update). Riley, K.J., Hoffman, B. 2 pp. FS 000092. Threat Assessment: An Approach To Prevent Targeted Violence (Research in Action). Fein, R.A., Vossekuil, B., Holden, G.A. 8 pp. NCJ 155000. Trends, Risks, and Interventions in Lethal Violence: Proceedings of the Third Annual Spring Symposium of the Homicide Research Working Group (Research Report). Block, C., Block, R. 370 pp. NCJ 154254. Understanding and Preventing Violence (Research in Brief). Roth, J.A. 1994. 12 pp. NCJ 145645. Understanding and Preventing Violence: A Public Health Perspective (Research in Progress Videotape). Kellerman, A.L. NCJ 152238. Violence in Cornet City: A Problem-Solving Exercise (Issues and Practices). Kelley, P., Moore, M.D., Roth, J.A. 42 pp. NCJ 154258. Youth Violence, Guns, and Illicit Drug Markets (Research Preview). Blumstein, A. 4 pp. FS 000129. Youth Violence, Guns, and Illicit Drug Markets (Research in Progress Videotape). Blumstein, A. NCJ 152235. Research and Evaluation Solicitations Issued in Fiscal Year 1995 o Boot Camps Research and Evaluation. o Data Resources Program: Funding for the Analysis of Existing Data. o Fellowship Opportunities at the National Institute of Justice. o Impact Evaluation of Operation Weed and Seed. o Developing Guidelines for Death Investigations and Training Death Investigators. o Review of External DNA Proficiency Testing. o Policing Research and Evaluation. o Research in Action Partnerships. o Research and Evaluation on Violence Against Women. o Forensic DNA Laboratory Program. o Drug Court Research and Evaluation Program. o John B. Pickett Fellowships in Criminal Justice Policy and Management. o Data Resources Program: Analysis of Existing Data. o Evaluation of the High Intensity Drug Trafficking (HIDTA) Program. o Assessment of School-based Prevention Programs. Other NIJ Awards in Fiscal Year 1995 (Research in Brief).16 pp. January 1996. NIJ Research Plan, 1995-1996. 48 pp. NCJ 153520. National Institute of Justice Journal, October 1995; December 1995; February 1996; April 1996. NCJRS User's Guide. 8 pp. NCJ 155063. The NIJ Catalog, November/December 1995, No. 25; January/February 1996, No. 26; March/April 1996, No. 27. The NIJ Publications Catalog, 5th Edition, 1985- 1995. 26 pp. NCJ 157688. ------------------------------ Appendix C NIJ Partnerships The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) encourages joint research and evaluation projects with other Federal agencies and private foundations. During fiscal year 1995, NIJ entered into memorandums of agreement or collaborated in other ways with the Departments of Defense, Education, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, State, and Treasury. Agencies and foundations that have indicated a desire to collaborate with NIJ or are currently involved in joint research efforts with NIJ include: Federal Agencies: Administration on Children and Families (HHS) Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (Treasury) Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (DOS) Bureau of Justice Assistance (OJP) Center for Mental Health Services (HHS) Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (HHS) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHS) Corrections Program Office (OJP) Drug Court Program Office (OJP) National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Institute on Aging (HHS) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (HHS) National Institute of Corrections (DOJ) National Institute on Drug Abuse (HHS) National Institute of Mental Health (HHS) National Science Foundation Office of Assistant Secretary for Policy Development and Research (HUD) Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (NIH/HHS) Office of Community-Oriented Policing Services (DOJ) Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (DOE) Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJP) Office of National Drug Control Policy Office of Research on Women's Health (NIH/HHS) Office for Victims of Crime (DOJ) State Justice Institute Violence Against Women Grants Office (OJP) Foundations The Carnegie Corporation of New York The Annie E. Casey Foundation The Ford Foundation The Daniel and Florence Guggenheim Foundation The J.C. Kellogg Foundation John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation The Pew Charitable Trusts The Prudential Foundation The Rockefeller Foundation ------------------------------ For more information on the National Institute of Justice, please contact: National Criminal Justice Reference Service P.O. Box 6000 Rockville, MD 20849-6000 1-800-851-3420 e-mail: askncjrs@ncjrs.org You can view or obtain an electronic version of this document from the NCJRS Justice Information Center World Wide Web site. For World Wide Web access, connect to the NCJRS Justice Information Center at: http://www.ncjrs.org If you have any questions, call or e-mail NCJRS.